aass:=l 


USE  OF  OILS 

IN 

TEXTILE  MILLS 


GILL 


I 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/useofoilsintextiOOgill 


USE  OF  OILS 


IN 


TEXTILE  MILLS 


BY 

AUGUSTUS  H.  GILL,  PH.  D. 

PROHESSOR  OP  TECHNICAL  ANALYSIS,  MASSACHUSETTS    INSTITUTE 
OF  TECHNOLOGY.  CAMBRIDGE.  MASS. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

TEXTILES 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


Copyright,  1920 
By  SAMUEL  S.  DALE 


Contents 


Page 

Introduction        1 

Mineral  Oils     4 

Organic   Oils     8 

Castor    Oil     10 

Cocoanut    Oil     10 

Com    or    Maize    Oil    11 

Cottonseed     Oil     11 

Klaine  or  Keil  Oil    11 

Horse    Oil     12 

Lard    Oil    12 

Linseed    (Jil     13 

Neatsfoot    Oil     13 

Olive     Oil     13 

Palm     Oil     14 

I'alui    Kernel   Oil    14 

Kapeseed    Oil     14 

Uosin   Oil    15 

Sesanig  or  Teel  Oil   15 

Soya  Oil    15 

Sperm    Oil     15 

Tallow    or   Ox   Oil    16 

Turpentine    16 

Whale    Oil    10 

Blown    Oils     16 

Wool    Fat     17 

Distilled    Grease     18 

Oil    Foots     19 

Fuller's    Grease     20 

Black    Oil     20 

Garbage    Grease    21 

Lubricating  Greas«    21 

Fiber    Grease    22 

Gear     Grease     22 

Pinion    Grease     22 

Grapbite    Grease     22 

Petroleum     Grease     2-i 

Hot   Ne<'k   Grease    2: J 

Miscellaneous  Oils    24 

(Jas    Engine    Oils    24 

Belt   Oils    or    Dressing    24 

Crank    Case    Oils    24 

^'ydinder     Oils      24 

I^ressing    or    Finishing    Oils    25 

Engine     Oils     25 

Milling   Machine   or    Soluble   Oils    25 

Neutral     Oil     25 

Oilless    Bearings     26 

Screw    Cutting    Oils    26 

Loom    Oil     26 

Spindle     Oil     26 

Stainless     Oils      26 

Turbine    Oil     , 20 

Wool     Oils     26 


iv  CONTF^NTS— Cnnlinued 

Page 

Properties  and  Tests  of  Lubricants     -T 

Rapid  Tests       27 

Heat     Test     27 

Kiuiilsiflcation    Ti-st    -'8 

More  Thorough  Tests     28 

(iaso-linc    Test     28 

Viscosity    Test     28 

Visoosimeter     29 

Specific    Gravity 31 

Cold     Test     33 

<          Flash-l'oint    33 

Fire    Test     35 

Cummiug    Test    35 

Test  for  Acidity    36 

Tests  for  Animal  and  Veiretable  Oils  in  Mineral  Oils  36 

Detection  of  "Oil  Tliiolcener"   36 

Evaporation  Test    37 

Friction   Test    37 

Tests  of  Burning  Oils   39 

Flasli  Test   39 

Fire   Test    41 

Specific  Gravity    41 

Sulphuric  Acid  Test    42 

Tests  for  Animal  and  Vegetable  Oil       42 

Physical  Tests   43 

Specific  Gravity    44 

Valenla  Test   44 

Klaidin  Test 45 

]\Iaumen6  Test    46 

Halphen's  Test  for  Cottonseed   Oil    47 

Tests  for  Unsaponifinble  Oils  48 

Saponification  Number  48 

Iodine  Value   48 

Spontaneous  Combustion  Test  49 

General  Considerations    51 

Gravity   and   Baum6    53 

Tests  of  Certain  Oils    53 

AVoar  and  Tear  of  Oils  54 


Introduction 


Oils  are  nearly  colorless,  yellowish,  brownish  red,  or 
black  liquids  having  a  peculiar  fluidity  or  "body."  They  are 
thicker  than  water  on  which  they  usually  float,  and  are 
neither  acid  nor  alkaline  in  character. 

According  to  their  origin,  they  are  divided  into  two  great 
classes: 

(1)  Mineral  oils,  coming  from  the  earth. 

(2)  Organic  oils,  the  product  of  animal  or  vegetable  life. 
The   mineral  oils   are   similarly  divided   into  two   classes: 

those  of  paraffin  base  and  those  of  asphaltic  base.  The 
former  are  more  extensively  used  as  lubricants,  although 
the  use  of  the  latter  for  this  purpose  is  increasing.  Certain 
thick  asphaltic  oils  when  heated,  and  a  current  of  com- 
pressed air  blown  through  them,  change  into  asphalt,  "oil," 
or  "artificial  asphalt,"  whereas  the  paraffin  oils  remain 
practically  unchanged. 

Organic  oils  are  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  plants  or  the 
fat  of  animals,  and  are  also  divided  into  two  classes:  fixed 
or  fatty  oils,  and  essential  or  volatile  oils.  The  fixed  oils, 
like  lard  or  olive,  leave  a  permanent  stain  on  cloth  or  paper, 
while  the  spot  made  by  volatile  oils  like  turpentine  or  clove, 
evaporates  completely  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

The  fixed  or  fatty  oils  are  subdivided  into  three  groups: 
the  drying,  the  semi-drying,  and  the  non-drying  oils.  A  dry- 
ing oil  hardens  and  soon  forms  a  skin  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  as  shown  with  linseed  oil. 
The  semi-drying  oil  tends  to  the  same  condition,  but  natur- 
ally contains  too  many  non-drying  compounds  to  permit  it. 
Cottonseed  or  corn  oil  is  an  example  of  this,  thickening 
fiomewhat  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  non-drying  oils,  such 
as  olive  or  lard,  as  their  name  denotes,  change  but  little  even 
on  very  long  exposure. 

The  volatile  oils  are  the  substances  that  impart  the  char- 
acteristic odor  to  plants  and  animals.  They  are  Interesting 
to  us  only  as  they  serve  to  mask  some  familiar  or  disagree- 
able odor  of  an  oil  in  a  lubricating  compound. 


Having  defined  the  various  oils,  it  is  interesting  to  see 
how  these  differences  are  accounted  for  and  learn  something 
more  about  their  properties. 

The  mineral  oils  are  composed  of  hydrocarbons,  that  is, 
liquids  made  up  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Hydrogen  (H)  is  a 
gas  used  in  filling  balloons,  while  carbon  (C)  is  familiar  to 
us  in  coal,  coke,  black  lead  and  the  diamond.  Wlien  chem- 
ically bound  to  hydrogen,  it  makes  natural  gas  (mainly  CH4, 
the  simplest  hydrocarbon),  gasoline  (CcH„),  kerosene,  spin- 
dle oil  and  all  the  various  mineral  lubricating  oils,  and  finally 
solid  paraffin. 

The  symbols  or  formulas  Just  used  (CH<,  CcHjJ  are  In  the 
first  place  abbreviations;  but  they  mean  more  than  the  ferr. 
sulph.  (ferrous  sulphate)  and  pot.  nitr.  (potassium  nitrate) 
of  the  apothecary;  they  show  by  a  small  figure  (4,  6,  14)  writ- 
ten after  the  element  and  below  the  line,  the  number  of 
atoms  or  smallest  parts  of  each  element  in  a  molecule  or 
smallest  part  of  a  substance. 

Thus  CH«  means  in  marsh  gas  (methane)  that  we  find  1 
atom  of  carbon  and  4  atoms  of  hydrogen,  or  since  every 
atom  of  carbon  weighs  12  units  and  hydrogen,  1,  there  are 
12  parts,  75  per  cent.,  by  weight  of  carbon  in  a  molecule  of 
marsh  gas  and  4  parts,  25  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen. 
So  with  Cr,Hi«,  the  symbol  means  there  are  6  atoms  of  carbon 
and  14  atoms  of  hydrogen  combined  to  make  a  molecule  of 
hexane;  or  there  are  72/86th  of  84  per  cent,  carbon  and 
14/S6ths  or  16  per  cent,  hydrogen  in  the  compound.      < 

So  it  is  with  every  chemical  formula.  If  we  let  the  num- 
ber of  carbon  atoms  be  represented  by  n,  we  shall  find  that 
hydrogen  atoms  can  be  represented  by  2n-(-2;  this  is  the 
general  formula  of  the  parafiln  series. 

Besides  this  we  have  several  other  series— the  define 
CnH,n,  members  of  which  are  also  found  In  lubricating  oils, 
CnH,n'2;  the  acetylene  series,  CnH,n-6;  the  aromatic  series, 
and  others,  the  basis  of  many  of  the  perfumes,  dyes  and 
drugs.  Toluene  (toluol)  one  of  Its  members,  is  used  to  make 
T.N.T,  tri-nitro-toluene  or  toluol. 

These  hydrocarbons,  particularly  the  paraffins,  are  neu- 
tral, Inert,  inactive  compounds,  the  word  "neutral"  meaning 
"without  affinity."  They  are  insoluble  in  water  and  cannot 
be  saponified;  this  Is  why  it  Is  that  spots  of  loom  oil  are  so 

2 


dlCBcult  to  remove.  Some  of  them  In  thin  layers  even  tena 
to  gum  or  reslnify,  making  their  removal  Btlll  harder.  All 
that  soaps  or  alkalis  do  to  them  Is  to  emulsify  or  split  them 
up  Into  exceedingly  small  globules  and  envelop  them  with  a 
film  of  soap,  preventing  them  from  sticking  to  the  fabric  or 
each  other,  in  which  condition  they  can  be  washed  off. 

Organic  oils,  like  the  preceding,  are  made  up  of  hydrogen 
and  carbon  and  also  oxygen.  They  are  compounds  of  glycer- 
ine and  fatty  acids — organic  salts  of  organic  acids.  By  the 
term  salt  Is  meant  a  compound  formed  by  the  union  of  an 
acid  and  a  base.  Acids  are  contained  In  vinegar.  In  sour 
milk  and  fruits,  and  "soldering  acid":  they  have  a  sour  taate 
and  turn  vegetable  blues  red. 

Bases  or  alkalis  are  exactly  opposite  In  character  to  the 
acids,  they  are  familiar  to  us  In  slaked  lime,  "household  am- 
monia" and  lye.    They  have  a  biting  taste  and  a  "soapy  feel," 
actually  dissolving  the   skin,  and   turn  vegetable  reds   blue. 
The  base  in  the  case  of  these  oils  is  glycerine  C,H,(OH),. 
The  acid  may  be  one  of  a  number  of  fatty  acids,  stearic 
C„H,.COOH,   or   oleic   C„H„COOH;    In   the   animal   fats   and 
oils — olive  or  neatsfoot  for  example.  It  Is  largely  oleln,  hav- 
ing the  formula 
C.,H„COO  1 
C„H„COO  }  C.H, 
C„H.,COO  J 
which  Is  oleate  of  glyceryl.    When  these  oils  are  made  Into 
soap,  glycerine  Is  always  formed,  and,  as  Is  well  known.  Is  a 
by-product   of   the   soap   factories.     An   Idea  of   what   takes 
place  may  be  gained  from  the  expression: 

Oil  -f  lye  gives  soap  -f  glycerine,  oi  as  the  chemist  would 
express  It: 

C„H,.COO  ]  NaOH      C„H„COONa  f  OH 

C„H,.COO  [  C.H,  -(-  NaOH  =C„H„COONa  +  C,H,  ^  OH 
C„H„COOJ  NaOH      C„M„COONa  ( OH 

Glyceryl  oleate  +        soda  =  soap  +  glycerine 

Oleln  (olive  oil)  lye 

The  reaction,  as  It  Is  called,  pictures  the  process  known  as 
saponification,  and  explains  the  washing  out  of  wool  oils 
from  fabrics,  the  soap  formed  being  dissolved  in  water. 

Inasmuch  as  machine  oils,  usually  hydrocarbon  oils,  are 
unsaponifiable,  It  explains  why  these  are  so  difficult  to  remove. 

3 


Many  experiments  have  been  made,  and  much  time  con- 
sumed In  attempts  to  saponify  hydrocarbon  oils,  but  it  Is 
impossible,  and  the  explanation  ju.si  given  shows  why  it  is. 
The  most  that  has  been  accomplished,  is  to  mix  the  soap  and 
mineral  oil  together,  the  soap  emulsifying  the  latter  and  en- 
abling it  to  be  partially  washed  out. 

Mineral  Oils. 
Several  theories   have  been  proposed  as  to  the  origin  of 
petroleum.     One  is  that  it  was  formed  from  the  flowerless 
plants  and  simple  animals  at  about  the  same  time  and  in  a 


<rroc//fe/  /.eye/ 


1  ig.   1— PETROLEUM  STILL. 

similar  manner  as  was  coal.  Another  that  it  was  produced 
by  the  natural  distillation  of  the  fat  of  the  fish  that  were  so 
abundant  just  subsequent  to  the  coal  period.  Professor 
Engler  has  substantiated  this  theory  by  distilling  half  a  ton 
of  menhaden  oil  at  a  prespure  of  l-"0  pounds  and  obtaining 
a  product  resembling  crude  petroleum,  from  which,  by  dis* 
tillation,  a  good  illuminating  oil  was  prepared. 

Petroleum  (rock  oil)  is  found  in  many  localities,  of  which 
those  in  North  America,  Canada,  :\Iexico  and  Russia  are  the 
more  important.    It  is  obtained  by  drilling  a  well,  like  an  ar- 


tesian  well,  until  the  oil-sands  are  reached,  usually  at  a  depth 
of  1,800  or  2,000  feet,  whence  the  oil  gushes  for  a  time  and 
afterward  requires  to  be  pumped. 

It  finds  its  way  by  pipe  lines  and  storage  tanks  into  the 
still,  Figs.  1  and  2.  This  still  resembles  a  hofizontal  tubular 
boiler  42  feet  long  x  15  feet  in  diameter,  holding  about  50,- 
000  gallons.  This  is  heated  at  the  end  or  side,  using  coal  or 
oil  as  fuel.  The  vapors  formed  by  the  heat  pass  out  by 
domes  and  goosenecks  to  the  condenser,  Fig.  3,  which  are 
coils  of  pipe,  and  set  in  tanks  of  running  water. 

The  vapors  are  condensed  to  a  liquid,  and  products  of  dif- 


Figr.  2— rKTROLEUM  STILL. 

ferent  densities  are  obtained,  the  lighter  portions  coming  off 
first,  the  different  portions  being  separated  according  to  the 
indications  of  the  hydrometer.  These  portions  are  known  as 
the  "naphtha  di.slillate,"  the  "burning  oil  distillate"  and  the 
"lubricating  oil  distillate."  These  are  treated  in  tall  tanks, 
called  "agitators,"  with  sulphuric  acid  to  remove  the 
"skunks,"  as  the  bad  smelling  portions  are  called,  and  then 
washed  with  alkali  and  water. 

This  is  the  treatment  more  particularly  for  oils  that  have 
been  prepared  by  the  "cracking  process,"  which  consists  of 
breaking  down   the   molecules   of   the   very   heavy   oils   into 

5 


smaller  and  lighter  ones,  just  as  a  dish  is  cracked  into  small 
fragments.  Oils  which  have  been  prepared  by  straight  distil- 
lation, particularly  one  in  which  dry  steam  Is  used,  to  lift 
the  heavy  vapors  out  of  the  still,  are  not  usually  acid 
treated. 


Fig.  3— PETROLEUM  CONDENSER. 

Both  classes  of  oils  may  be  filtered  through  bone  charcoal 
or  fuller's  earth  to  Improve  the  color.  There  seems  to  be  a 
clearly  defined  impression  that  the  loss  of  color  Is  also  ac- 
companied by  a  loss  In  the  lubricating  value.  Acid-treated 
oils  emulsify  more  readily  with  water,  partly  on  account  of 

6 


the  "sulpho"  compounds  which  they  contain,  and  are  less  de- 
sirable as  lubricants.  Sulphonic  and  sulphuric  acids  are  dif- 
ficult to  remove  completely. 

The  following  table  shows  some  of  the  principal  products 
derived  from  petroleum,  together  with  their  properties  and 
uses: 

Naphthas. 
Name  Gravity  Be.     Boils,  °F.  Use 

Cyraogene    , 110-100  32  Ice  machines 

Rhigolene     100-90  65  Anesthesia 

Petroleum    ether    90-80       100-150  Gas  machines 

Gasolene     80-75         150-190 1  Oil  extraction 

Naphtha    76-70        160-210  j  Motor  stoves 

Ligroine     67-62         160-225  Motors  for 

Benzine    62-57        225-300  turpentine 

Burning  Oils. 

Fire  test 

Export   oil    57-53  100     Burning(Chlna) 

Export  oil    53-50  120  "       (Eng.) 

Kerosene    50-47       135-150  "       (Amer.) 

Mineral  sperm    39-36  300 

Lubricating  Oils. 

Gravity  "Be.  Flash  °F.  Cold  °F.  Tiscosity, 

Spindle  Oils:  Sec.  at  70  °F. 

No.  4  Eagle    34.4  320  25  72 

No.  1  Eagle     30.3  390  25  200 

Engine  oil     31.7  300  30  49 

Engine  oil     27.9  350  32  104 

Engine  oil     24.9  395  32  220 

Engine  oil     23.1  415  34  400 

Cylinder  oil    28.1  500  50.55  117* 

Cylinder  oil    27.5  550  50  150 

Cylinder   oil    26.1  600  35  200 

•at  212°  F. 


Organic  Oils 

Oil  is  found  in  all  parts  of  animals  and  vegetables,  al- 
though more  is  contained  in  certain  parts  than  in  others.  In 
land  animals  the  fat  occurs  on  the  back,  abdomen,  and  upper 
parts  of  the  legs;  in  lish,  around  the  body,  as  the  blubber 
of  the  whale;  in  the  head  with  the  blackfish  and  sperm 
whale;  throughout  the  whole  body,  as  in  the  menhaden,  and 
in  the  liver,  as  with  the  codfish  and  shark. 

With  vegetables,  oil  is  mostly  found  ic  the  seed,  although 
with  the  essential  or  volatile  oils,  it  occurs  in  the  flower,  as 
with  the  rose;  in  the  bark,  as  with  cinnamon;  and  in  the 
root,  as  with  sassafras. 

These  oils  are  contained  in  cells  composed  of  animal  mem- 
branes or  of  cellulose,  and  to  obtain  the  oil  the  cells  must  be 
ruptured.  This  is  usually  done  by  heat  in  the  case  of  animal 
oils,  and  with  vegetable  oils  by  grinding  and  pressure.  The 
membranes  containing  oil  soon  putrefy  on  standing,  causing 
the  oil  to  turn  rancid  and  have  a  bad  odor;  consequently,  ani- 
mal oils  should  be  rendered  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  animal  fat  is  cut  up  into  small  fragments  and  filled 
into  large  digesters  or  autoclaves.  Fig.  4,  heated  with  direct 
steam.  The  apparatus  is  filled  and  discharged  by  manholes 
at  the  top  and  bottom.  When  steam  at  50  pounds  pressure  is 
admitted,  the  cell  walls  are  broken  down  and  the  melted  fat 
flows  with  the  water  to  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus.  The 
gases  evolved,  together  with  some  steam  which  is  condensed, 
pass  to  a  chimney  or  sewer.  After  a  few  hours'  heating  the 
steam  Is  shut  off,  the  pressure  released,  and  the  autoclave 
allowed  to  stand  in  order  to  separate  the  oil  from  the  water. 

The  separation  can  be  determined  by  means  of  cocks  at 
various  heights  upon  the  autoclave.  When  this  has  taken 
place,  the  water  Is  drawn  off  as  completely  as  possible 
through  these  cocks,  and  the  oil  through  another.  The  ani- 
mal tissue  (cell  walls  or  membranes),  "scraps"  or  "crack- 
lings" are  discharged  through  the  bottom  manhole.  These 
cocks  serve  also  as  exits  for  the  water  used  in  washing  the 
fat  after  it  is  packed  in  the  autoclave. 

With  the  vegetable  oils  the  seeds,  hulled  in  some  cases, 
are  crushed  by  rollers  or  edge-runners,  rupturing  the  oil- 
cells,  the  resulting  mass  being  steamed  or  "cooked"  to  com- 


plete  the  rupture  and  render  the  oil  more  fluid,  and  then 
pressed  in  duck  or  horso-hair  bags  in  a  hydraulic  press.  This 
press  consists  of  a  framework  supporting  the  top,  against 
which  the  bags  are  pressed  by  the  ram,  which  is  forced  out 
of  Its  cylinder  by  pressure  of  water  or  oil. 

Oil  obtained  by  cold  and  moderate  pressing  is  the  best. 
The  yield  is  small  and  after  pressing  in  this  manner,  the 
press  Is  enclosed  and  heated  by  steam,  and  the  pressure  In- 
ceased  with  a  corresponding  Increase  in  yield.  Wedge, 
screw,  knuckle-joint,  lever  and  eccentric  presses  are  also 
used. 


Fisr.  4— A   DIGKSTKR  FOR  ANOLVL  FAT. 

Vegetable  oils  can  be  prepared  by  dissolving  them  out 
from  the  crushed  mass  with  naphtha,  carbon  bisulphide  or 
tetrachloride.  To  this  end  the  crushed  seeds  are  filled  into 
boiler-iron  extractors  like  the  autoclave,  which  are  provided 
with  false  bottoms,  and  the  solvent,  as  naphtha,  caused  to 
circulate  through  the  mass,  dissolving  the  oil.  The  solution 
is  then  heated,  and  the  solvent  distilled  off.  leaving  the  oil. 
The  condensed  solvent  can  be  used  again. 

A  larger  yield  of  oil  is  obtained  by  this  method,  but  it  con- 

9 


tains  more  impurities,  such  as  gums,  gelatinous  matters,  etc., 
for  the  naphtha  dissolves  these  as  well  as  the  oil.  Further- 
more, the  odor  of  the  solvent  is  diflBcult  to  remove  com- 
pletely from  the  oil.  The  residue  left  in  the  extractors,  con- 
taining less  oil,  is  not  as  valuable  for  cattle  feed  as  the  press 
cake,  and  can  be  used  only  as  a  fertilizer  or  fuel.  The  plant 
required  for  this  process  is  more  complicated  and  expensive 
and  more  dangerous  as  a  fire  risk. 

The  oils  when  freshly  expressed  or  rendered  are  often 
dark  in  color  or  contain  resinous,  gummy,  or  gelatinous  mat- 
ter, fatty  acids  and  water  and  require  to  be  refined  or  clari- 
fied. The  treatment  varies  with  the  oil.  With  cotton  seed, 
whale,  and  sperm  oils  they  are  treated  with  caustic  soda  lye, 
which  combines  with  the  color  and  saponifies  the  fatty 
acids,  the  soap  thus  formed  carrying  down  the  gummy  mat- 
ters as  "foots." 

Some  of  the  animal  oils,  as  lard,  are  in  addition  treated 
with  compressed  air  and  fuller's  earth  to  improve  the  color. 
Certain  other  oils  are  bleached  with  acids  and  bichromate  of 
potassium  or  sodium  peroxide.  Frequently,  as  with  linseed 
oil,  water  and  mucilage  are  removed  by  allowing  the  oil  to 
settle  for  twelve  to  eighteen  months,  becoming  an  "aged"  or 
"varnish  oil."  Besides  this  artificial  means,  oils  are  bleached 
by  exposure  to  sunlight  in  shallow  tanks. 

Castor  O.il  is  semi-drying  oil  obtained  by  pressing  castor 
beans,  which  contain  about  50  per  cent,  of  oil.  It  is  a  color- 
less or  pale-greenish,  heavy,  thick,  and  viscous  oil.  It  is 
adulterated  with  blown  oil  (for  few  others  are  heavy  enough 
to  serve  as  adulterants),  such  as  linseed,  rape  or  cottonseed 
and  rosin  oils.  These,  though  10  per  cent,  be  present,  cause 
a  turbidity  with  alcohol  with  which  castor  oil  is  miscible  In 
every  proportion.  Castor  oil  is  employed  in  medicine,  in  the 
manufacture  of  Turkey-red  (sulphonated)  oil,  for  soap  mak- 
ing, illumination,  as  a  belt  dressing,  and  on  steamships  as  a 
lubricant. 

Cocoanut  Oil  or  fat  is  obtained  from  the  fat  of  the  coaconut, 
the  fruit  of  a  species  of  palm.  The  finest  quality  is  that  pre- 
pared in  Malabar  from  the  fresh  fruit.  Inferior  varieties  are 
made  from  the  dry  kernels  or  "copra,"  which  contain  from 
GO  to  70  per  cent,  of  oil.  It  is  a  solid,  white  fat  of  bland  taste 
and  peculiar  odor,  readily  turning  rancid.    It  is  soluble  in  two 

10 


volumes  of  absolute  alcohol  at  90°  F.  It  is  used  in  soap- 
making,  particularly  for  salt-water  soaps,  in  candle-making, 
and  as  a  table  fat,  the  various  "nut"  margarines. 

Corn  or  Maize  Oil  is  a  semi-drying  oil  obtained  by  pressing 
the  germ  of  the  corn  separated  in  the  manufacture  of  starch 
or  alcohol.  It  is  a  pale-yellow  to  golden-yellow  oil,  excelling 
cottonseed  oil  in  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air.  It  is  adul- 
terated with  mineral  and  rosin  oils,  shown  by  lowering  the 
Maumen§  value,  and  in  the  case  of  mineral  oil  by  the  lower 
specific  gravity.  It  is  used  as  an  adulterant  for  linseed  and 
lard  oils,  for  painting,  burning,  lubricating  and  soap-making, 
and  after  treatment  with  sulphur  chloride,  as  a  waterproof 
and  belt  dressing  and  a  substitute  for  rubber. 

Cottonseed  Oil  is  a  semi-drying  oil  prepared  by  pressing  the 
seeds  of  the  cotton  plant,  which  contain  about  25  per  cent,  of 
oil.  When  first  pressed,  the  oil  is  ruby-red  or  black,  and  is 
purified  by  treatment  with  caustic  soda,  carrying  down  the 
color  and  gelatinous  substances  as  "cottonseed  foots."  The 
oil  thus  obtained  varies  in  color  from  white  to  deep  yellow.  It 
belongs  to  the  class  of  the  semi-drying  oils,  slowly  absorbing 
oxygen  from  the  air  and  "gumming,"  which  renders  it  less 
valuable  as  a  lubricant.  Cottonseed  oil  is  rarely  adulterated. 
It  serves,  however,  to  adulterate  other  oils,  where  its  pres- 
ence can  be  shown  by  the  Halphen  test,  already  described. 
Other  uses  are  as  a  screw-cutting  oil,  for  soap-making,  and  as 
a  salad  and  hardened  cooking  oil. 

Elaine  or  Red  Oil.  Commercial  oleic  acid.  Oleine.  The 
name  "oleine"  is  applied  by  the  oil  trade  to  a  limpid  oil, 
really  oleic  acid,  obtained  by  the  breaking  down  of  a  fat, 
by  saponification  with  a  mineral  acid  or  by  distillation.  Simi- 
larly the  companion  term  "stearine"  (usually  wrongly  pro- 
nounced sterreen),  really  stearic  acid,  is  the  solid  part 
obtained, 

Elaine  oil  is  made  by  heating  fat  in  closed  vessels  or  auto- 
claves, similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  4,  with  2  to  4  per  cent, 
of  lime  or  sulphuric  acid.  This  probably  begins  the  saponifi- 
cation, as  the  process  is  called,  which  is  completed  by  the 
steam.  It  is  like  the  action  which  takes  place  in  making 
soap  (01-oleic  acid): 

CjH.OIa  +  3  H,0  =  CJL.  (OH),  +  3  HOI 

oil  +  water  =  glycerine  -\-  oleine 

11 


Because  these  oils  are  acid  they  are  readily  and  completely 
saponifiable,  hence  they  are  much  used  as  wool  oils,  and  may 
be  adulterated  with  any  of  the  cheaper  oils,  as  cottonseed  or 
mineral.  In  their  use  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  they 
are  really  acids,  not  oils,  and  consequently  will  corrode  metals. 
This  is  seen  sometimes  in  their  corrosive  action  upon  the 
pins  of  the  combs  in  wool  combing,  the  leather  backs  of  the 
card  clothing,  and  particularly  upon  articles  of  brass  or 
copper. 

There  has  been  a  more  or  less  justly  founded  prejudice 
against  the  use  of  elaine  oils  on  account  of  their  liability  to 
produce  spontaneous  combustion.  The  writer  well  reinem- 
bers  some  white  woolen  yarn  which  had  been  stored  some 
months  "in  the  grease,"  on  spindles  tightly  packed  in  wooden 
cases  in  a  cool  basement.  When  opened  the  yarn  was  rotted 
and  charred,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  fact  that  the  cases 
were  tightly  closed,  preventing  a  rapid  oxidation,  fire  would 
undoubtedly  have  resulted  from  the  spontaneous  oxidation 
of  the  oil.  Recent  work  of  Swett  and  Hughes  seems  to  in- 
dicate that  a  small  percentage  of  iron  in  the  oil  will  bring 
about  this  result. 

Horse  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  prepared  by  rendering  dead 
horses.  It  varies  in  consistency  from  an  oil  to  a  grease,  and 
in  color  from  light  to  deep  yellow.  It  is  used  for  mixing  with 
and  adulterating  other  oils. 

Lard  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  obtained  by  pressing  lard.  The 
lard  is  chilled,  brought  into  press-cloths  and  pressed  in  screw 
or  chain  presses  at  a  pressure  of  about  four  tons  to  the 
square  inch,  yielding  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  oil 
is  valued  according  to  color,  which  varies  from  reddish  brown 
to  very  light  straw  yellow,  according  to  the  lard  from  which 
it  is  pressed.  Frequently  the  color  is  improved  by  refining 
with  fuller's  earth.  The  grades  in  the  market  are  Prime, 
Pure,  Extra  No.  1,  Crackling  Oil,  No.  1  and  No.  2,  Prime  be- 
ing the  best.  The  odor  varies  from  almost  none  to  offensive 
in  the  No.  2  samples. 

Lard  oil  is  adulterated  with  cottonseed,  corn,  and  neutral 
petroleum  oils.  Cottonseed  is  shown  by  the  Halphcn  test 
and  by  the  higher  Maumene  (sulphuric  acid)  test.  Should  the 
oil  not  give  the  Ilalphen  test,  hut  show  a  high  Maumene 
value,  it  is  an  indication  of  the  presence  of  corn  oil.  Neutral 
petroleum  would  be  shown  by  the  flash  test  and  a  low  Mau- 

12 


men6  value;  ordinary  petroleum,  by  the  "bloom"  or  fluore- 
scence. The  oil  is  used  as  a  screw-cutting  oil,  for  burning 
(signal  oil,  miner's  lamp  oil),  for  oiling  wool  preparatory  to 
spinning,  and  ir.  soap-making. 

Linseed  Oil  is  a  drying  oil  prepared  from  flaxseed,  which 
contains  about  40  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  oil  is  called  Calcutta 
and  Western  oil  from  the  locality  where  the  seed  is  grown. 
It  is  of  a  golden  yellow  color  and  pleasant  odor.  When  ex- 
posed to  the  air  it  absorbs  oxygen,  forming  a  thin  film  of  a 
gummy  insoluble  substance,  hence  its  use  as  a  paint  oil. 
This  film  oil  is,  however,  quite  porous,  and  of  little  protec- 
tion unless  it  carries  a  pigment  in  it. 

Linseed  oil  is  an  example  of  a  drying  oil,  and  it  may  dry 
so  rapidly  as  to  produce  heat  and  cause  fire  by  spontaneous 
combustion.  Great  care  shotild  consequently  be  used  to  burn 
up  all  rags  or  waste  saturated  with  animal  or  vegetable  oils, 
particularly  linseed,  not  even  saving  them  for  use  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.  This  caution  does  not  apply  to  mineral  oils  or 
mixtures  of  the  above  oils  with  mineral  oils  where  the  latter 
constitute  half  the  volume  of  the  mixture.  The  oils  which 
are  liable  to  cause  spontaneous  coml)usion  are:  first,  the  dry- 
ing oils,  as  linseed  and  menhaden;  second,  the  semi-drying 
oils,  as  corn,  cottonseed,  and  rapeseed,  also  neatsfoot,  lard, 
and  "red  oil." 

Linseed  oil  is  adulterated  with  corn,  cottonseed,  menhaden, 
and  rosin  oils,  all  of  which  retard  the  drying  tendency. 

Neatsfoot  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  obtained,  as  its  name  sig- 
nifies, from  the  feet  of  neat  cattle,  that  is,  steers,  cows,  etc. 
The  hoofs  are  separated,  the  bones  of  the  feet  disjointed  and 
the  latter  boiled  with  water.  The  emulsion  is  allowed  to 
settle  and  the  oil  which  rises  i.s  separated.  As  is  the  case 
with  all  oils,  that  which  is  obtained  with  the  least  degree  of 
heat  or  pressure  is  the  best.  It  is  of  light  yellow  color,  a 
bland  taste  and  peculiar  odor,  with  little  tendency  to  turn 
rancid.  It  is  adulterated  with  fish,  rapeseed,  cottonseed,  and 
mineral  oils;  the  first  three  would  raise  the  Maumenu  figure; 
the  last  lower  it.  It  is  also  adulterated  with  other  hoof  oils, 
as  shoep-trotter  and  horscfoot  oil,  which  are  difficult  of  de- 
tection. It  is  used  as  a  lubricant  by  itself  or  compounded,  as 
for  currying  leather. 

.  Olive  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  prepared  by  pressing  or  ex- 
tracting the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree.     The  oil  varies  greatly 

13 


according  to  the  tree,  there  being  no  less  than  300  varieties 
in  Italy  alone,  and  also  the  degree  of  ripeness  and  manner  of 
gathering  the  fruit  itself.  It  varies  in  color  from  almost  col- 
orless to  golden  yellow  or  green.  As  used  for  oiling  wool, 
it  may  contain  a  large  amount,  from  1  to  24  per  cent.,  of 
free  fatty  (oleic)  acid.  This,  while  possessing  the  advantage 
of  being  readily  scoured  out  of  the  finished  goods,  has  a 
serious  disadvantage  in  that  it  corrodes  the  pins  of  the  wool 
combs,  and  has  a  tendency  to  rot  the  leather  backs  of  the 
card  clothing.  The  free  fatty  acid  (more  than  5  per  cent.) 
renders  it  unfit  as  a  lubricant  and  as  a  burning  oil,  as  it 
attacks  the  metals,  and  also  causes  charring  of  the  wick.  It 
is  often  adulterated,  cottonseed,  peanut,  rape,  sesame,  poppy 
seed,  and  lard  oils  being  used  for  the  purpose. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  high  grade  textile  oil  is  some- 
times used  as  an  edible  oil,  it  is  at  present  denatured  with 
the  oil  of  Rosemary.  Cottonseed  oil  would  be  shown  by  the 
Halphen  test,  and  the  high  Maumene  figure  (76),  peanut  oil 
would  also  be  shown  by  the  high  Maumene  figure.  The  serv- 
ice of  a  skilled  chemist  would  be  required  to  determine  the 
presence  of  these  adulterants,  with  the  exception  of  cotton- 
seed, and  in  some  cases  even  he  could  not  be  sure.  Olive 
oil  is  used  as  a  table  oil,  for  oiling  wool,  as  a  soap  stock  and 
as  a  burning  oil. 

Palm  Oil  or  Fat  is  prepared  from  the  flesh  of  the  palm  nut, 
which  grows  in  immense  quantities  on  the  west  coast  of  Af- 
rica. The  fruit  is  fermented,  whereby  the  oil  rises  to  the 
top;  or  it  is  expressed  from  the  fresh  fruit.  Owing  to  the 
method  of  preparation  its  properties  are  quite  varied.  It  is 
of  a  buttery  or  tallowy  consistency,  of  orange  yellow  to 
dirty  red  in  color,  due  to  carotin,  and  it  has  an  odor  in  some 
samples  recalling  that  of  violets.  It  can  be  bleached  by 
heating  to  a  high  temperature,  treatment  with  acid  or  sun- 
ning. Palm  oil  is  used  like  cocoanut  oil  for  soap  and  candles 
and  for  coloring  other  oils. 

Palm  Kernel  Oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  or  kernels  of 
the  fruit  from  which  palm  oil  is  made.  It  resembles  cocoa- 
nut  oil  very  closely,  and,  like  it.  is  chiefly  used  in  soap  making. 

Rapeseed  Oil  is  a  serai-drying  oil  obtained  from  seeds  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  mustard  family,  turnips  and  their  va- 
rieties. The  oil  is  pale  yellow  to  yellow,  of  a  peculiar  odor 
and  harsh  or  pungent  taste.    It  is  adulterated  with  cottonseed 

14 


and  rctined  fish  oil.  The  former  would  be'  detected  by  the 
Halphen  test;  the  latter,  by  the  odor.  It  is  used  as  a  lubri- 
cant, more  particularly  in  Europe,  and  as  a  burning  oil. 

Rosin  Oil  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  common  rosin  in 
stills  holding  about  thirty  barrels.  About  85  per  cent,  of 
oil  is  obtained.  This  is  distilled,  redistilled  and  sometimes 
distilled  again,  giving  "rosin  oil  first  run,"  "second  run," 
"third  run,"  and  "fourth  run."  A  small  quantity  of  rosin 
spirits  is  obtained  at  the  same  time.  "First  run"  is  em- 
ployed in  making  axle-grease,  in  oiling  leather  and  making 
cements;  "second  run"  is  used  in  printing  ink,  and  in  curry- 
ing; and  the  "third"  and  "fourth  runs"  are  used  to  adulterate 
other  oils.  Rosin  oils  are  thick,  reddish-brown,  viscous 
liquids  of  high  specific  gravity,  0.981-0.987,  and  peculiar  odor. 
Sesame  or  Teel  Oil  is  a  semi-drying  oil  made  from  the  seeds 
of  the  sesame  plant.  It  is,  according  to  the  degree  of  re- 
finement, of  a  pale  to  deep  yellow  color  and  pleasant  taste. 
It  is  adulterated  with  cottonseed,  peanut  and  rape  oils  and 
used  as  an  edible  and  burning  oil  and  in  soap  making. 

Soy  or  Soya,  Chinese  bean  oil,  is  a  drying  oil,  and,  as  its 
name  denotes,  obtained  from  the  Soy  bean,  formerly  grown 
chiefly  in  China  and  Japan,  but  now  also  in  this  country.  It 
is  pale  yellow  to  brown  in  color.  It  is  employed  in  soap 
making,  for  boiled  and  blown  oils  and  grinding  with  colors.  It 
dries  slowly  and  is  tacky,  and  can  to  a  certain  extent  re- 
place either  cottonseed  or  linseed  oil. 

Sperm  Oil.  Real  sperm  oil,  a  non-drying  oil,  is  obtained 
from  the  huge  cavity  in  the  head  of  sperm  whales.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  oil  obtained  by  trying  out  the 
blubber,  as  well  as  to  the  oil  from  the  Arctic  sperm  or  bot- 
tlenose  whale.  The  crude  oil,  as  unloaded  from  the  ships,  is 
packed  in  ice,  thus  chilling  it,  is  shoveled  into  bags  and 
pressed  after  the  manner  of  lard.  The  solid  part  after  refin- 
ing forms  spex-maceti;  and  the  liquid  portion,  sperm  oil.  It 
Is  a  limpid  oil,  of  a  pale  yellow  color  and  faint  odor,  and  one 
of  the  best  lubricants  we  have.  Of  the  fatty  oils  it  has  the 
lowest  viscosity  and  it  varies  loss  than  that  of  any  other  oil 
with  increase  of  temperature.  The  common  adulterants  are 
whale,  mineral  and  rapeseed  oils,  also  liver  oils.  Whale  oil  is 
indicated  by  the  strong  fishy  odor  and  nutty  taste;  mineral 
oils,  by  the  low  flash  test  corresponding  to  a  gravity  of 
0.880;  and  rapeseed  oil,  by  the  peculiar  odor  and  taste.     It  is 

15 


used  as  a  lubricating  and  formerly  as  a  burning  oil. 

Tallow  or  Ox  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  obtained  from  beef 
tallow  after  the  manner  of  the  manufacture  of  lard  oil  from 
lard.  It  is  a  light  yellow,  bland  oil,  resembling  tallow  in 
odor  and  is  employed  in  mixing  with  mineral  oils  as  cylinder 
oil. 

Turpentine  is  made  by  the  distillation  of  pine  resin  or  pitch 
In  copper  stills  of  about  800  gallons  capacity.  To  aid  the 
process,  a  stream  of  water  is  run  into  the  still,  making  a 
distillation  with  steam.  The  residue  in  the  still  is  run  off 
into  barrels,  forming  the  rosin  of  commerce.  The  yield  and 
quality  vary  according  to  the  length  of  time  the  trees  have 
been  producing  resin,  both  growing  inferior  with  age.  The 
resin  of  the  first  season  is  called  "virgin  dip,"  and  produces 
the  finest  quality  of  rosin,  "W.  W."  (water  white)  or  "W|.  G." 
(window  glass).  Other  grades  are  "V,"  "U,"  "T,"  etc.,  to 
"A,"  which  is  the  poorest  and  blackest. 

Turpentine  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  peculiar  taste  and  odor. 
On  exposure  to  the  air  it  evaporates  and  becomes  partially 
resinous.  It  is  adulterated  with  petroleum  products,  benzine 
and  kerosene,  which  would  be  shown  by  the  low  flash  test  and 
gravity,  and  by  the  bloom  in  the  case  of  kerosene.  Wood 
turpentine,  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  pine  stumps  and 
wood  with  steam,  is  in  many  ways  a  satisfactory  substitute 
for  the  resin  turpentine. 

Whale  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  prepared  from  the  blubber  of 
whales  after  the  manner  of  sperm  oil,  to  which  it  is  similar. 
It  has  a  strong  fishy  odor,  a  nutty  taste,  and  is  light  yellow 
to  brown  in  color.  A  customary  adulterant  is  seal  oil,  which 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  detect.  It  is  used  as  a  leather 
dressing,  as  a  burning  oil,  and  for  lubricating  purposes. 

Blown  Oils.  Blown,  base,  thickened  or  oxidized  oil  is 
usually  prepared  by  heating  the  oil  from  IGO  to  230°  F.  in  a 
jacketed  kettle  and  forcing  a  current  of  air  through  it.  After 
the  action  is  once  started,  no  further  heating  is  usually  neces- 
sary. The  color  of  the  oil  darkens  somewhat,  but  the  spe- 
cific gravity  and  viscosity  are  much  increased. 

The  oils  submitted  to  this  process  are  chiefly  rape  and  cot- 
tonseed, although  it  is  often  applied  to  linseed,  sperm,  and 
seal  oils.  The  blown  oils  are  used  to  mix  with  other  oils  to 
increase  their  viscosity  for  lubricating  purposes. 

16 


Wool  Fat.  This  is  found  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  British 
or  American  degras,  suint,  lanoline,  wool  grease  recovered 
or  Yorkshire  grease.  As  the  names  denote,  this  is  the  greasy 
material  obtained  in  the  washing  of  wool.  Wool  contains 
from  20  to  80  per  cent,  of  impurities,  made  up  of  (a)  wool 
grease,  the  fatty  matter  secreted  by  the  skin  of  the  sheep, 
amounting  to  6  to  17  per  cent,  of  the  wool;  (6)  suint,  also  a 
skin  secretion  but  soluble  in  water,  consisting  of  the  potas- 
sium salts  of  oleic,  valeric  and  acetic  acids,  with  sulphates, 
phosphates,  chlorides  and  nitrogenous  compounds  amounting 
to  5  ta  24  per  cent,  of  the  wool;  and  (c)  dirt,  earthy  matter 
and  manure. 

These  substances  are  removed  from  the  fiber  in  two  ways,  by 
scouring  with  soap  and  alkali,  and  by  exti-action  of  the  grease 
with  solvents,  usually  naphtha  or  carbon  tetrachloride  and 
subsequent  washing.  These  foul  and  ill-smelling  wash-waters 
are  usually  run  into  the  streams  and  form  one  of  the  most 
troublesome  sources  of  pollution.  Wool  grease  is  sfiponifled 
with  difficulty,  but  readily  emulsitiable  and  is  deposited  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  stream. 

To  recover  the  grease,  the  wash-waters  are  allowed  to 
stand  to  settle  out  the  sand  and  dirt,  then  "soured"  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  whereupon  part  of  the  grease  floats  and  part 
settles.  These  portions  are  collected  and  pressed  hot  through 
canvas.  The  grease  thus  obtained  contains,  besides  wool 
grease,  the  fatty  acids  of  the  soaps  used  and  also  traces  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Or  the  solvent  is  distilled  off  from  the  solu- 
tion of  the  grease  and  the  latter  strained  into  barrels.  The 
product  thus  obtained  is  of  lighter  color  and  better  quality 
than  that  obtained  by  the  acid  process,  is  free  from  sulphuric 
acid  and  practically  so  from  fatty  acids  and  is  the  only  one  to 
which  the  term  wool  grease  is  properly  applied. 

Properties.  It  is  a  light  or  dark  brown  substance  of  a  pe- 
culiar, unpleasant  odor  and  salvy  consistence.  It  is  not 
wholly  saponified  by  alcoholic  potash,  requiring  sodium  alco- 
holate  to  complete  the  process.  It  mixes  with  water  readily 
and  forms  emulsions  which  are  unusually  permanent,  par- 
ticularly if  any  alkali  is  present,  and  which  may  contain  as 
much  as  80  per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  not  readily  oxidized  on 
exposure  to  the  air. 

Compositions.     It  is  a  complex  mixture  of  alcohols  and  es- 

17 


ters,  a  collection  of  waxes  and  not  a  fat;  the  esters  are 
largely  those  of  cholesterol  and  its  isomers.  Lanocerlc, 
lanopalmic,  myristic,  carnaubic  and  other  oily  and  volatile 
acids,  ceryl  and  carnaubyl,  alcohol,  cholesterol  and  isochol- 
esterol  are  some  of  the  compounds  which  have  been  found  in 
the  grease. 

Constants,  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  is  impossible  to  give  any  figuree  to  which  the  name  con- 
stant can  be  properly  applied. 

Adulterants.  Wool  fat  is  rarely  adulterated,  the  usual  one 
being  mineral  oil,  not  intentionally  added,  but  coming  from 
the  wash  waters.  It  is  detected  by  its  resistance  to  saponifi- 
cation and  insolubility  in  acetic  anhydride,  which  converts 
the  cholesterol  into  the  acetate.  Rosin  oil  may  also  be  used 
and  is  detected  by  partial  saponification  with  potash,  the 
object  being  to  saponify  the  rosin  acids  in  the  oil  and  not 
the  cholesterol  esters,  and  the  liberation  of  the  rosin  acids^ 
w^hich  are  submitted  to  the  Liebermann-Storch  test. 

Uses.  Degras  is  used  to  mix  with  oils  for  currying  pur- 
poses, with  lard  and  similar  oils  for  "wool  oils,"  and  when 
purified  forms  the  lanoline  of  the  Pharmacopoeia.  This, 
from  the  ease  with  which  it  is  absorbed  by  the  skin,  makes 
an  admirable  basis  for  salves  and  ointments.  There  are 
two  varieties,  one  anhydrous  (adcps  lanae),  and  one,  lano- 
line proper,  with  about  25  per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  used  to 
replace  tallow  in  certain  cylinder  oils. 

Distilled  Grease,  Oleines  and  Dressing  Oils.  This  is  pre- 
pared by  distilling  wool  grease  in  cast-iron  stills,  using  su- 
perheated steam  to  carry  forward  the  heavy  vapors.  A 
Btearine  and  oleine  are  obtained  by  cooling  and  pressing  the 
distillate.    Wool  fat  pitch  is  left  in  the  retort. 

Properties.  The  crude  stearines  are  brownish  and,  like  all 
these  products,  of  a  peculiar  penetrating  aldehydic  odor. 
When  refined  they  are  white  and  crystalline.  The  oleines 
are  light  yellow  to  dark  brown  and  have  a  greenish  fluor- 
escence, which  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  bluish  "bloom" 
of  the  mineral  oils  used  as  adulterants. 

Composition.  The  esters  originally  present  in  the  wool  fat 
are  broken  down  into  hydrocarbons  and  fatty  acids  of  high 
molecular  weight,  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic,  which  in  turn 
are  dissociated  into  acids  of  lower  molecular    weight    and 

18 


other    hydrocarbons.     The     following     equation,     cited    by 
Smith,  gives  an  idtui  of  what  ntay  have  taken  place: 
C,-,n3.COOC,,.H3c  =  Ci^Ha.COOH  +  C„H3, 
Oetyl  palmitate  =  Palmitic   acid  -f-  Cetene. 
These   hydrocarbons   have   been   investigated    by   Gill   and 
Forrest.     They  were  found  to  be  olefines,  from  hepta  decy- 
lene,  CnHj,  Bpt.  at  1  mm.  95°-100°,  an  oil,  to  triacontylene 
C30H00,  Bpt.  1S6°-193°,  a  wax-like  solid.     They  can  be  distin- 
guished from  hydrocarbons  intentionally  added,  by  the  deter- 
mination of  the  bromine  addition^  and  substitution  numbers, 
the   optical   rotation,    and    index   of   refraction.     These    con- 
stants, obtained  on  hydrocarbons   separated  from   some  dis- 
tilled grease  oleines   by  Gill  and  Mason,   are   shown  in   the 
table  below. 


Oleine 

Bromine 

Optical  Refractive 

Sp.  Gr. 

Add. 

Subs. 

Rotation 

at  20°  C. 

A   

0.896 

28.8 

14.2 

-f  17°  58' 

1.4967 

B    

0.902 

25.1 

14.8 

17°  36' 

1.4991 

C    

0.896 

21.5 

16.8 

15°  13' 

1.4948 

0.848 

4.4 

5.6 

1.4662 

Mineral  Oils 

to 

to 

to 

1°25' 

to 

0.863 

5.9 

8.4 

1.4760 

The    examination    of    distilled    wool    grease    is    conducted 
upon  the  same  general  lines  as  indicated  in  the  case  of  wool 
fat.     Lewkowitsch  obtained  the  following  results: 
Free  fatty  acids  (oleic)  37%         47%         52%        37% 

Glycerides  33%  3%         18%        18% 

Unsaponifiable  Matter  30%         51%         30%         45% 

Flash  point,  °F.  364°         360°        370°         346° 

Adulterants.  The  only  adulterant  is  mineral  oil,  the  detec- 
tion of  which  has  already  been  given. 

Uses.  Distilled  grease  stearine  is  used  in  soap  and  can- 
dle making;  the  oleine  is  used  as  a  wool  oil. 

Oil  Foots.  The  term  "foots"  is  applied  by  the  oil  and  paint 
trade  to  any  sediment  obtained  in  the  manufacturing  or  stor- 
ing process.  It  is  a  mixture  of  oil,  the  impurities  contained 
in  the  oil  coming  from  the  seed,  or  "mucilage,"  as  it  is  called, 
coloring  matter,  water,  dirt,  and  where  alkali  has  been  used 
in  the  refining  process  of  the  saponified  oil  or  soap. 

Properties.  Cotton-seed  oil  foots  or  soap-stock  varies  in 
color  from  light,  dirty  yellow,  through  dark  green  to  deep 
red,  changing  to  black  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  odor  is 
that  of  decomposed  fish,  due  probably  to  methyl  amine.     If 

19 


it  contains  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  water  it  ferments  easily 
in  hot  weather,  and  the  soap  made  therefrom  is  poorer  in 
color  than  that  made  from  fresh  stock. 

Composition  and  Analysis.  This  has  been  given  under 
preparation;  it  varies  with  the  amount  and  strength  of  the 
alkalies  used.  The  total  fatty  acids  vary  from  35  to  65  per 
cent,  45  being  a  fair  average;  less  than  40  per  cent,  cannot 
be  delivered  on  contracts.  The  specific  gravity  is  from  0.97 
to  1.04,  1.00  being  the  average. 

A  typical  analysis  is  as  follows: 

Water  36.0 

Fatty  anhydrides    48.5 

Glycerine   \ 4.0 

Caustic  soda,  Na.O    5.8 

Uses.  It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soap,  textile  or 
mill  soaps  particularly,  and  is  by  far  the  cheapest  soap- 
making  material  on  the  market.  Many  of  the  "washing 
powders"  are  composed  of  settled  foots  soap  and  soda  ash. 
In  England  the  foots  are  distilled  with  superheated  steam, 
after  the  manner  of  wool  grease,  which  has  already  been 
described.  On  oleine,  stearine  and  cotton  seed  stearine  pitch 
are  the  products.  Other  foots  beside  cotton  seed  are  linseed, 
whale,  sperm  and  olive  oil. 

Fuller's  Grease.  This  product,  known  as  "seek  oil"  (Eng- 
land) and  recovered  oil,  is  obtained  from  the  water  in  which 
woolen  cloth  has  been  washed,  by  a  process  similar  to  that 
by  which  wool  fat  is  produced.  It  consists  of  the  oil  which 
has  been  used  in  carding  and  spinning  the  wool,  together 
with  the  fatty  acids  obtained  from  the  scouring  soap  used, 
and  those  which  existed  in  the  oils  as  such.  Olive,  lara, 
neat's-foot,  saponified,  and  distilled  red,  or  "elaine  oils,"  "dis- 
tilled grease"  oleines  and  mineral  oils,  sometimes  mixed 
with  wool  fat  or  degras,  or  some  of  the  oils  used  for  this 
purpose. 

Composition.  This  will  vary  according  to  the  oils  and 
soaps  used,  and  the  results  obtained  should  be  compared 
with  the  constants  of  the  oils  originally  employed.  If  the 
oil  is  to  be  used  again  as  a  wool  oil,  the  spontaneous  com- 
bustion and  saponification  tests  should  be  applied. 

Black  Oil.  This  is  the  term  applied  to  oil  extracted  from 
the  greasy  waste  of  woolen  mills  and,  except  for  mineral  oil 

20 


coming  from  the  machinery,  is  the  same  as  that  upon  the 
wool  itself.  It  should  not  be  confounded  with  a  petroleum 
product,  black  oil,  a  crude  petroleum  from  which  naphtha 
and  burning  oil  have  been  distilled  and  used  for  freight-car 
lubrication. 

Garbage  Grease.  This  is  a  grease  obtained  by  the  extrac- 
tion of  garbage  with  naphtha  or  carbon  tetrachloride.  It  is 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  cheap  toilet  soap,  or  distilled  as 
is  wool  fat. 

Lubricating  Greases. 

Gillett  divides  the  greases  into  six  classes: 

1.  The  tallow  type,  a  mixture  of  tallow  with  palm  oil  soap 
with  some  mineral  oil;  this  was  common  thirty  years  ago. 

2.  The  soap  thickened  mineral  oil  type,  a  mixture  of  min- 
eral oil  usually  with  lime  or  sometimes  soda  soaps,  the  com- 
monest type  at  present. 

3.  Types  1  or  2  mixed  with  graphite,  talc,  or  mica. 

4.  The  rosin  oil  type:  a  mixture  of  rosin  oil  thickened  with 
lime,  or  sometimes  litharge,  with  mineral  oil.  They  contain 
often  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  water  and  are  used  as  gear 
greases.  They  may  contain  also  tar,  pitch,  ground  wood, 
or  cork,  and  any  of  the  fillers  mentioned  in  3. 

5.  Slow-flowing  oils:  Oils  or  thin  greases  stiffened  with 
"oil  pulp"  or  "dope,"  i.  e.,  aluminum  oleate. 

6.  Special  greases  with  special  fillers. 

These  greases  show  a  high  coefficient  of  friction  at  first, 
causing  a  rise  of  temperature  which  melts  the  grease — pro- 
ducing the  effect  of  an  oil-lubricated  bearing.  The  graphite 
greases  showed  an  unexpectedly  low  lubricating  power;  the 
rosin  greases  showed  a  high  friction  at  first,  but,  after  the 
bearing  had  warmed  up,  compare  well  with  the  more  expen- 
sive greases.  The  high  moisture  content  would  seem  to  have 
the  advantage  of  making  them  less  sticky.  The  lime-soap 
greases  (Class  2)  are  not  as  good  as  the  tallow  greases  (Class 
1),  and  are  inferior  as  lubricants  to  those  mixed  with  soda 
soaps. 

By  choosing  the  materials,  soft  or  hard  soaps,  and  light, 
medium  or  heavy  oils,  or  solid  greases,  with  suitable  fillers — 
talc  or  graphite — and  varying  their  proportions,  greases  can 
be  made  in  any  desired  consistency,  from  the  semi-fluid  oil 
to  the  hot  neck  grease. 

21 


Greases  are  in  many  cases  to  be  preferred  to  oils,  par- 
ticularly where  oil  spots  from  the  bearings  are  to  be  avoided; 
the  most  fluid  grease  that  will  stay  in  place  and  do  the  work 
should  be  chosen  as  with  oils.  They  are  used  upon  dynamos, 
shafting,  gears,  and  where  heavy  pressure  is  applied,  as  In 
the  trains  of  rolls  in  rolling  mills.  Some  of  these  greases 
have  received  special  names,  as  Fiber  Grease,  Gear  or  Pinion 
Grease,  Graphite  Grease,  Petroleum  Grease  and  Hot  Neck 
Grease. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  some  of  the 
greases: 

■  COMPOSITION    OF   SOME   GREASES. 

»  S 

""^^  ^     1,      I  &  =      5      I        £ 

Graphite     105  93  18  tr.  11  IG  56  17  0  .097 

Summer  motor    IGO  87  170  tr.  38  ..  36.5  25  tr.  .075 

Winter  motor    175  86  7  tr.  23  ..  40  37"  6.1  .063 

Ki      193  85  24  0.2  16  ..  67  16  0  .057 

K, 195  93  66  0.3  20  ..  60  20  0.3  .054 

Auto      190  79  11  1.0  19  ..  00  20  tr.  .040 

Tallow     210  52  150t  2.5  ..  j  1*'  22  73.5  0  .022 

Tallow    XX    215  49  200  tr.  . .  30'  20  48  0  .029 

Lead    re.sin    oil    240  102  7  24.7  ..            1.7'  ..  0  0  .067 

Lime   resin    oil    198  77  31  tr.  ..           9.9'  ..  0  0  .048 

Lime  resin  oil   198  75  4  20.0  . .  7.85  . .  0  . .  .0;«5 

Soda    urease    215  83  35  0  ..  22«  78'  0  0  .019 

Slow-flowins        210  76  27  0  9.8  12.9«  70.3  7  0  .026 

No.  4  retrolatum   ..  247  47  6  0  ..            ..100-0  0  018 

Lard    Oil    205  5  0  0  ..            ..            0  100  ..  .011 

tEstlmated.    'Potash     =Lead   soap.    ^caO.     ■'Soda   soap.     'Mainly   palm    oil. 
«011  of  24.2°   Be.    Taraffln. 

Fiber  Grease  is  so  called  because  it  appears  to  be  fibrous, 
especially  when  pulled  apart;  it  is  an  anhydrous  soda  or 
potash  soap  (Class  1)  mixed  with  mineral  oil.  Gear  Grease 
is  usually  a  mixture  of  fiber  grease  with  mineral  oil,  or  it 
may  contain  rosin  oil  (Class  4).  Pinion  Grease  is  commonly 
made  from  petroleum  residuum  (still  bottoms);  pine  tar  is 
often  added,  and  in  some  cases  the  grease  consists  solely  of 
this  tar,  to  the  detriment  of  its  lubricating  qualities.  Graphite 
Grease  is  a  mixture  of  about  one  part  graphite  and  two  parts 


gear  grease;  it  is  especially  useful  in  wet  places,  as  it  is  not 
easily  washed  out  of  the  bearings,  particularly  if  it  be  com- 
pounded with  a  lime  soap.  Petroleum  Grease  is  a  heavy  vase- 
line-like body  obtained  from  still  residues  after  the  cylinder 
oil  has  been  distilled  off.  Hot  Neck  Grease  is  the  stiffest  of 
all  the  greases;  it  is  usually  a  stearine  or  wool  grease  pitch, 
or  petroleum  residuum  mixed  with  rosin  talc  and  graphite.  The 
tests  applied  to  greases  are  much  the  same  as  those  applied 
to  the  oils  modified  as  the  differences  in  composition  and  be- 
tween the  solid  and  liquid  state  require. 

The  following  tests  are  usually  applied  to  the  greases: 
flash,  free  acid,  dropping  point,  soap  content,  free  oil  or  fat, 
saponiflablc  and  mineral;   free  lime,  fillers  and  water. 

Grease  or  "Cup  Grease"  should  be  homogeneous,  and  con- 
tain at  least  80  per  cent,  mineral  oil  of  24°-28°  B6.;  it  should 
bo  neutral — containing  neither  free  alkali  nor  fatty  acids, 
nor  should  it  contain  grit  nor  useless  filler,  as  paraffin  wax. 
The  ash  should  not  exceed  2.75  per  cent,  and  the  loss  or 
evaporation  for  an  hour  at  110°  should  not  exceed  3  per  cent. 


Miscellaneous  Oils. 

Automobile  or  Gas  Engine  Oils.  Gas  engine  oils,  particu- 
larly for  the  cylinders,  should  possess  as  their  chief  requisite, 
besides  that  of  lubrication,  the  property  of  not  carbonizing  at 
the  temperatures  attained.  The  liability  of  carbonization  seems 
to  be  intimately  connected  with  the  amount  of  tarry  matter 
yielded  in  the  gumming  test  and  residue  in  the  carbon  residue 
test.  For  automobiles,  oils  of  the  following  characteristics 
have  yielded  good  results:  Flash  400°-470'  F.,  viscosity  180-185 
at  100°  F.,  gumming  tests  very  slight  or  slight.  For  large 
size  gas  engines,  probably  a  heavier  oil  would  be  required, 
having  these  characteristics.  Gravity  26-28°  Be.,  flash  400-475° 
F.,  viscosity  250  seconds  at  100°  F. 

Belt  Oils  or  Dressing.  Where  the  object  is  the  softening 
of  the  belt  these  oils  are  usually  mixtures  of  solid  fat,  waxes, 
degras  or  acidless  tallow  (70  per  cent.)  with  castor  or  fish 
oils  (30  per  cent.)  to  make  the  belts  cling;  in  some  cases 
they  are  mixtures  either  of  corn  or  cotton-seed  oils  which 
have  been  treated  with  sulphur  chloride,  with  mineral  oil 
and  thinned  with  naphtha,  or  they  may  be  mixtures  of  the 
above  fats  with  rosin  oil.  These  latter  are  less  desirable. 
Preparations  containing  wood  tar  are  also  used. 

Crank  Case  Oils.  These  should  emulsify  but  little  with 
water,  consequently  should  be  pure  filtered  mineral  oils  and 
not  acid  treated.  Much  seems  to  depend  upon  the  water  with 
which  the  oil  is  mixed  in  the  crank  case,  so  it  is  difficult  to 
predict  how  oils  of  practically  the  same  constants  will  be- 
have with  difEerent  waters.  An  oil  giving  these  figures  has 
proved  eminently  satisfactory,  gravity  26°-27°  Be.,  flash  455° 
F.,  viscosity  100  at  212"°  F. 

Cylinder  Oils.  These  are  divided  into  low  and  high  pre.s- 
sure.  The  problem  to  be  met  consists  in  making  the  oil 
adhere  to  the  surfaces  of  the  piston  and  valves.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  addition  of  some  fatty  oil  which  adheres 
to  the  metal  and  the  mineral  oil  adheres  to  it.  The  action  of 
the  fatty  oils  would  seem  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  a  mordant 
in  fixing  dyes.  Pure  fatty  oils  while  they  have  been,  and  may 
now  in  some  cases  (with  low  pressures)  be  used,  are  open 
to  the  objection  that  these,  being  glycerides,  are  decomposed 
by  high  pressure  steam  with  the  liberation  of  fatty  acids 
which  attack  the  iron  of  the  cylinder,  causing  pitting  and 
scoring. 

24 


On  the  other  hand,  when  the  condensed  water  from  the  ex- 
haust steam  is  used  as  boiler-fccd  water,  the  fact  that  these 
fatty  oils  emulsify  so  well  with  it,  renders  it  necessary  to 
use  pure  mineral  oils.  The  cylinder  stocks,  that  is,  the  pure 
petroleum  bases,  have  the  following  characteristics:  Gravity 
23-28°  B^.,  flash  500-630°  F.,  viscosity  100-230  at  212°  F.  For 
superheated  steam,  the  following  figures  are  given  for  the  oil 
to  be  used:  flash  point  625-640°  P.,  viscosity  315-325  at  212°  F. 
The  fatty  oils  used  have  already  been  mentioned  and  vary 
In  quantity  from  1  to  25  per  cent.;  the  wetter  the  steam,  the 
larger  the  amount  of  compounding. 

Dressing  op  Finishing  Oils  are  usually  either  distilled 
grease  oleines  or  soluble  oils  which  are  applied  to  the  woven 
goods  to  produce  a  softer  finish. 

Engine  Oils.  Engine  oils  are  classed  as  light  and  heavy. 
A  heavy  oil  has  a  viscosity  of  280-340  seconds  at  100°  F.; 
medium  175-200  and  lights  50-150  seconds  at  100°  F.  Besides 
being  used  for  engines  they  find  general  employment  about 
the  mill  or  works.  Where  the  duty  is  heavy  or  the  bearings 
are  rough,  they  are  sometimes  mi.\ed  with  animal  oils,  as 
lard  or  whale. 

For  Diesel  engines  special  oils  are  required  as  follows: 
for  high  speed  marine  engines,  a  neutral,  filtered  oil  of  150 
seconds'  viscosity  at  100°  F.;  for  heavier  engines,  a  filtered 
cylinder  stock  of  150  viscosity  at  212°  F.;  for  heavy  and  slow 
speed  engines,  an  oil  of  450  viscosity  at  100°  F. 

Milling  Machine  or  Soluble  Oils.  These  are  usually  lard, 
sulphonated  fatty  or  mineral  oils,  or  mineral  oils  held  In 
suspension  by  soaps  or  alkalies,  as  borax,  sodium,  carbonate; 
the  soaps  are  either  ammonium,  sodium  or  potassium,  with 
oleic,  resin  or  sulpho-fatty  acids.  They  should  not  appre- 
ciably attack  the  metals  and  should  form  a  persistent  emul- 
sion. The  U.  S.  Navy  requirements  are  that  upon  2'4  hours' 
standing  upon  polished  brass  or  copper,  it  must  not  be  turned 
green;  German  requirements  arc  that  a  steel  plate  30  x  30  x  3 
mm.  should  not  lose  more  than  IS  mg.  in  a  1  or  2  per  cent, 
solution  of  the  oil  after  lying  for  three  weeks  In  It. 

Neutral  Oil.  An  oil  without  "cast"  or  "bloom,"  obtained 
by  sunning  in  shallow  tanks.  The  term  was  formerly  applied 
to  oils  of  32°-36°  B^.,  290°-318°  F.,  flash,  and  47-Sl  seconds' 
viscosity  at  70°  F.  At  present  the  term  Includes  "viscous 
neutrals,"  of  a  viscosity  above  135  seconds  at  100°  F.  and 
"non-viscous  neutrals"  below  this  figure. 

26 


Oilless  Bearings.  These  are  wooden  blocks  often  of  maple 
thoroughly  impregnated  with  35  to  40  per  cent,  of  grease 
which  replace  metal  journals;  the  grease  may  be  a  mixture  of 
paraffin,  myrtle  or  beeswax  with  stearine,  tallow  or  petroleum 
jelly. 

Screw  Cutting  Oils.  These  are  often  mixtures  of  26°-29° 
Be.,  paraffin  and  25  to  30  per  cent,  fatty  oil,  preferably  cotton- 
seed, although  lard  and  whale  are  sometimes  used. 

(a)  Loom  Oil.  This  is  merely  a  heavy  spindle  oil:  one 
which  the  author  tested  had  a  gravity  of  28°,  flash  360°  F., 
and  viscosity  of  203  seconds.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
spindle  oils,  the  evaporation  test  should  be  low,  as  the  hy- 
drocarbon  vapors   formed   have   occasioned   serious   fires. 

(ft)  Spindle  Oil.  This  is  the  lighter  and  most  fluid  of "  the 
lubricating  oils:  the  gravity  varies  from  27-35°  B6.,  the 
flash  from  320°  to  430°  F.,  the  viscosity  30-400  seconds  at 
70°  F.,  and  the  evaporation  test  should  not  be  over  4  per 
cent.  Nowhere  is  the  necessity  for  low  viscosity  greater  than 
in  the  case  of  these  spindle  oils  when  the  bearings  are  mul- 
tiplied by  thousands.  A  case  is  on  record  where  the  increase 
in  the  viscosity  of  the  spindle  oil  stopped  the  engine  and  shut 
down  the  mill.  Besides  being  used  for  spindles,  It  Is  used 
for  sewing  machines,  typewriters,  etc.  For  bath  spindles,  the 
viscosity  may  be  95  to  100  seconds  at  100°  F.;  for  open 
spindles,  this  may  be  increased  to  140  or  150  seconds. 

(c)  Stainless  oils  are  spindle  or  loom  oils  mixed  with  fatty 
oils,  lard  or  neatsfoot.  The  fatty  oil  being  more  easily  emul- 
sified or  possibly  saponified,  aids  materially  in  the  scouring 
process  in  washing  out  the  mineral  oil  with  which  It  Is  mixed. 
One  type  of  these  oils  is  compounded  of  40  per  cent,  neutral 
oil,  30  per  cent,  cotton-seed,  20  per  cent,  olive  and  10  per 
cent,  first  pressing  castor. 

Turbine  Oil.  Steam  turbines  require  a  pure  filtered,  non- 
emulsifiable,  mineral  oil  of  excellent  quality — free  from  acid 
and  the  tendency  to  resinify,  and  low  In  sulphur.  As  the 
oil  is  circulated  around  the  bearings  by  a  pump  it  should 
be  of  low  viscosity  and  gravity,  and  free  from  mechanical 
impurities.  An  oil  of  29-31  B6.,  145-180  seconds'  viscosity  at 
100°  F.  and  390  to  420°  flash  has  given  good  results. 

Wool  Oils.  The  various  oils  used  in  oiling  wool  have  been 
mentioned  under  Organic  Oils.  A  wool  oil  should  be  ex- 
amined for  flash-point,  unsaponifiable  matter,  for  fatty  acids, 
the  extent  to  which  it  will  gum  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
liability  to  occasion  spontaneous  combustion. 

16 


Properties  and  Tests  of  Lubricants. 

A  good  lubricant  should  possess: 

(1)  Minimum  cohesion  among  its  own  particles. 

(2)  Maximum  adhesion  to  the  surfaces  to  be  lubricated. 

(3)  Slight  changeability  as  regards  oxidation  by  the  air 
or  by  changes  in  the  temperature  or  pressure  of  the  bearings. 

(4)  Freedom  from  acid. 

(5)  Purity. 

A  thin  film  of  oil  should  interpose  itself  between  the  bear- 
ing metal  and  the  shaft,  as  the  rotation  of  the  latter  sep- 
arates the  particles  of  oil,  low  cohesion  makes  rotation 
easier.  High  adhesion  prevents  the  oil  from  running  off  iho 
shaft  and  out  of  the  bearing.  Exposure  to  the  air  may  result 
in  rancidity  with  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils,  or  in  reslnl- 
fication  with  the  mineral  oils;  this  is  aided  by  heat  and 
dust.  Heat  produces  an  evaporation  of  hydrocarbon  gases 
from  petroleum  oils,  particularly  the  lighter  or  spindle  oils, 
increasing  the  danger  from  fire. 

Inability  to  withstand  cold — high  cold  test — may  result  in 
freezing  the  oil  in  the  bearings  and  stopping  lubrication. 
The  oil  should  be  sufficiently  viscous  to  prevent  it  from 
being  squeezed  out  of  the  bearing,  except  by  unusual  pres- 
sures. 

Acid  attacks  and  roughens  the  shaft  and  bearings.  It  can 
be  formed  by  oxidation  of  the  oil  or  come  from  the  sulphuric 
acid  used  in  refining. 

Purity  is  freedom  (o)  from  water,  which  may  emulsify  the 
oil  and  diminish  its  lubricating  power  (water  also  gets  into 
the  lubricating  wicks  and  diminishes  their  capillarity);  (6) 
from  solid  matter  which  would  stop  up  the  oilers.  This  may 
be  metal  from  the  machinery,  stearin,  dirt,  chips,  etc.,  glue 
from  the  barrels;  coke  with  mineral  oils,  cracklings  with 
animal  oils,  and  cellulose  or  gelatinous  matter  with  vegetable 
oils. 

Rapid  Tests. 
The  Heat  Test.  Heat  about  an  ounce  of  the  oil  in  a  flask 
nearly  to  the  flashing  point  and  keep  it  at  this  temperature 
for  15  minutes.  A  satisfactory  oil  will  darken,  but  remain 
clear  even  after  standing  a  day.  A  poorly  refined  oil  changes 
to  Jet  black,  and  forms  a  carbon-like  precipitate,  In  conse- 
quence of  the  "sulpho"  compound  previously  mentioned. 

27 


Emulsification  Test.  This  shows  the  extent  to  which  oil 
will  emulsify  with  water,  and  should  be  conducted  with  a 
known  oil  as  a  means  of  comparison.  The  oils  are  thoroughly 
shaken  together  with  an  equal  volume  of  distilled  water  and 
allowed  to  settle  for  a  day.  If  "sulpho"  compounds  are  pres- 
ent, they  cause  the  oil  to  mix  with  the  water,  forming  a 
milky  suspension  with  curds  in  it.  A  good  oil  shows  a  clear, 
well-defined  line  between  the  oil  and  water  with  little  or  no 
turbidity.  The  results  of  this  test  should  coincide  with  those 
of  the  heat  test  and  will  usually  reveal  an  "acid-treated"  oil, 
since  a  filtered  oil  emulsifies  less  than  a  "red"  oil. 

More  Thorough  Tests. 

The  other  tests  to  be  made  will  naturally  vary  according 
to  the  use  for  which  the  oil  is  intended.  The  viscosity  and 
gumming  tests  are  of  cardinal  importance,  and  should  be 
applied  to  all  lubricating  oils.  If  the  oil  is  to  be  used  In- 
doors, the  flash,  fire  and  evaporation  tests  should  be  applied, 
as  they  measure  the  fire  risk.  The  cold  test  indicates  the 
availability  of  the  oil  at  the  working  temperature.  The 
emulsification  test  shows  the  behavior  of  the  oil  when  In 
contact  with  water  in  the  crank  case  or  turbine.  The  gaso- 
line test  shows  the  heat  treatment  of  the  oil  or  Its  adultera- 
tion with  "still  bottoms,"  heavy  residues  left  in  the  stills.  The 
gravity  test  indicates  the  base  of  an  oil,  whether  paraffin  or 
asphaltic,  and  the  iodine,  Maumeng  (pronounced  as  if  spelled 
"momenay,"  with  accent  on  last  syllable)  and  saponification 
tests  serve  usually  to  identify  the  organic  oils. 

Gasoline  Test.  This  is  performed  by  dissolving  about  a 
teaspoonful  of  the  oil  in  twenty  times  as  much  86°  gasoline 
from  Pennsylvania  crude,  and  noting  the  amount  of  precipi- 
tate or  tar  produced.  It  indicates  adulteration  with  heavy 
asphaltic  oils  or  tarry  still  residues. 

Viscosity  Test.  By  viscosity  we  understand  the  degree  of 
fluidity  of  an  oil  or  its  internal  friction,  or  its  "body"  or 
"greasiness,"  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed.  Other  things  be- 
ing equal,  the  least  viscous  oil  should  be  chosen,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  most  fluid  oil  that  will  stay  in  place  and  do  the 
work.  A  case  is  on  record  in  which  the  changing  of  a  spindle 
oil  to  one  slightly  more  viscous  caused  the  stopping  of  an 
engine,  and  hence  the  whole  mill,  due  to  the  increase  In 
friction.  Within  certain  limits,  the  viscosity  may  be  taken 
as  the  measure  of  the  value  of  an  oil  as  a  lubricant,  par- 

28 


ticularly  if  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  under  examination  is  com- 
pared witli  that  of  other  oils  which  have  been  found  to  yield 
good  results  in  practice. 

The  Instruments  employed  for  the  determination  of  viscos- 
ity are  constructed  upon  two  different  principles:  one  de- 
pending upon  the  time  required  for  a  certain  quantity  of  the 
oil  to  flow  through  a  standard  orifice;  and  the  other,  upon 
the  degree  to  which  a  rotating  disk  is  retarded  by  the  viscos- 
ity of  the  oil. 


Fie:.  5— SAYBOLT  VISCOSIMETER. 

An  apparatus,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  orifice 
instruments,  is  made  in  four  forms,  A,  B,  and  C,  and  the  Uni- 
versal, Apparatus  "A"  is  the  standard  for  testing  at  70°  F. 
Atlantic,  red,  paraffin,  and  other  distilled  oils;  "B,"  for  test- 
ing at  70°  black  oils  of  0°,  15°,  25°,  and  30°  cold  test,  and  other 
reduced  oils  up  to  and  not  including  summer  cold  test  oil; 
and  "C"  is  used  for  testing  at  212°  reduced,  summer,  cylinder, 
filtered  cylinder,  XXX  valve,  26.5°  Be.,  and  other  heavy  oils. 
The  results  are  reported  in  seconds. 

The  Universal  Viscosimeter.  This  instrument.  Figs.  5  and 
6,  consists  of  a  brass  tube  A  forming  the  body  of  the  pipette 
provided  with  a  jet  K.  The  upper  part  of  the  pipette  is  sur- 
rounded with  a  gallery  B  which  enables  a  workman  to  fill  it 

29 


to  the  same  point  every  time.  The  pipette  is  contained  in  a 
water  bath  C,  which  can  be  heated  either  by  steam  or  a  ring 
burner  D.  A  tin  cup  with  spout,  a  strainer,  thermometer, 
pipette  with  rubber  bulb,  stop  watch  and  beaker  for  waste 
oil,  complete  the  outfit. 

It  may  be  used  for  testing  cylinder,  valve,  and  similar  oils 
with  the  bath  at  212°,  and  oil   at  210°;    for  testing  reduced 


rig:.  6— SAYBOLT  VISCOSI3IETEB. 

and  black  oils  with  bath  and  oil  at  130°;  for  testing  spindle, 
paraffin,  red,  and  other  distilled  oils,  with  bath  and  oil  at 
100°.  When  used  for  testing  at  212",  it  may  be  used  with 
either  gas  or  steam  alone  or  both  in  combination.  If  with 
both,  the  steam  may  be  introduced  slowly;  more  for  its 
condensation  to  replace  evaporation  than  for  real  heating 
purposes,  depending  upon  the  gas  flame  to  reach  the  boiling 
point,  and  keeping  it  there  during  the  operation  of 
test.  The  bath  vessel  should  always  be  kept  full  dur- 
ing  a   test,   whether  at  212°,   130°    or   100°.    When  used  at 

30 


130°  or  100°,  gas  alone  is  used  to  bring  the  bath  to  the  pre- 
scribed temperature,  and  is  turned  off  during  the  operation 
of  test,  the  large  size  of  the  bath  usually  permitting  one  test 
to  be  made  without  reheating.  The  instrument  is  manipulated 
as  follows: 

1.  Have  the  bath  of  water  prepared  at  the  prescribed  tem- 
perature. 

2.  Have  the  oil  strained  into  one  of  the  tin  cups,  in  which 
cup  it  may  be  heated  up  to  about  the  standard  temperature. 

3.  Clean  out  the  tube  with  some  of  the  oil  to  be  tested 
by  using  the  plunger  sent  with  the  instrument. 

4.  Place  the  cork  (as  short  a  distance  as  possible)  into  the 
lower  outlet  coupling  tube,  just  enough  to  make  it  air-tight, 
but  not  far  enough  to  touch  the  small  outlet  jet  of  the  tube 
proper  (one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  may  be  enough). 

5.  Pour  the  oil  from  the  tin  cup  (again  through  the 
strainer)  into  the  tube  proper  until  it  overflows  into  the  over- 
flow cup  up  to  and  above  the  upper  edge  of  tube  proper. 

6.  Again  see  that  the  bath  is  at  the  prescribed  tempera- 
ture. 

7.  Use  the  thermometer  sent  with  the  instrument  by  stir- 
ring to  bring  the  oil  just  to  the  standard  temperature. 

8.  Remove  the  thermometer. 

9.  Draw  from  the  overflow  cup,  with  a  pipette,  all  the  sur- 
plus of  oil  down  to  and  below  the  upper  edge  of  tube  proper. 
This  insures  a  positive  starting  head. 

10.  Place  the  60cc.  flask  under  and  directly  in  line  with 
the  outlet  jet  and  as  close  to  the  coupling  tube  as  is  practi- 
cable to  permit  of  room  for  drawing  the  cork. 

11.  Start  the  watch  and  the  instant  the  second  hand 
crosses  the  sixty  seconds  mark  twist  out  the  cork  with  the 
right  hand. 

12.  The  time  required  for  the  delivery  of  60cc.  indicates 
the  viscosity. 

13.  Clean  out  the  tube  proper  before  ea'ch  test  with  some 
of  the  oil  to  be  tested. 

14.  No  drill  or  other  instrument  should  ever  be  used  in  the 
small  outlet  jet  of  tube  proper. 

The  tube  should  be  cleaned  out  before  each  test  with  some 
of  the  oil  to  be  tested,  using  the  plunger  P  for  this  purpose. 
Black  oils  or  any  oil  containing  sediment  should  be  carefully 
strained  before  testing  or  "running,"  as  it  is  technically 
termed.  The  instruments  should  be  carefully  guarded  from 
dust  when  not  in  use. 

Specific  Gravity.  By  specific  gravity  we  understand  the 
weight  of  a  substance  compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  iron  is  7.8.  This 
means  that  a  cubic  inch  of  iron  weighs  7.8  times  as  mucn  as  a 

31 


cubic  inch  of  water.  For  accurate  work  attention  has  to  he 
paid   to  the  temperature. 

In  the  case  of  mineral  oils,  the  specific  gravity  or  "gravity" 
is  expressed  in  terms  of  the  Baume  scale  for  liquids  lighter 
than  water.  This  is  an  arbitrary  scale,  in  which  water  counts 
as  10°.  For  example,  a  76°  naphtha  and  a  25°  lubricating  oil, 
mean  that  the  Baume  hydrometer  would  sink  in  the  naphtha 
to  the  seventy-fifth  degree  and  in  the  lubricating  oil  to  the 
twenty-fifth  degree,  both  these  liquids  being  cooled  to  C0°  F. 

The  mineral  oils  are  usually  designated  by  the  Baurn^  scale, 


Fig.   7— HVUKOMliTKK. 

while  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils  are  spoken  of  in  terms  of 
specific  gravity.  Cotton  seed  oil,  for  example,  has  a  gravity  of 
0.922,  meaning  that  a  quart  of  cottonseed  oil  is  nine  hundred 
and  twenty-two  thousandths  as  heavy  as  a  quart  of  water. 

The  chief  value  of  the  test  is  to  characterize  the  oil.  It 
is  usually  made  by  the  hydrometer.  A  hydrometer  jar  is 
four-fifths  filled  with  the  oil,  a  Baume  hydrometer  introduced 
into  it,  and  the  depth  to  which  the  instrument  sinks  in  the 
oil  read  off.    This  may  be  effected  by  placing  a  strip  of  white 

32 


paper  back  of  the  jar  and  noting  the  point  at  which  the  lower 
meniscus  or  curve  of  the  surface  of  the  oil  touches  the  scale, 
as  at  20",  Fig.  7.  The  temperature  of  the  oil  is  taken  at  the 
same  time,  and  in  case  it  is  not  60°  F.  (15.5°  C),  for  every 
Increase  of  10°  F.  (5.5°  C),  subtract  1°  B.  from  the  hydro- 
meter reading.  The  specific  gravity  may  be  found  by  the 
following  formula,  in  which  B  represents  the  Baum6  reading: 
140 --  (130 +  B°) 
Cold  Test.  This  may  be  defined  as  the  temperature  at 
which  the  oil  will  just  flow.  The  importance  of  this  test  is 
seen  wherever  oils  are  exposed  to  freezing  temperatures,  as  in 
railroad  use  on  car  axles.  If  the  oil  is  chilled,  it  ceases  to 
flow  and  the  bearing  becomes  hot;  or,  as  happened  on  the 
East  Prussian  railroad  during  the  World  War,  the  freezing  of 
the  oil  In  the  axle-boxes  stops  the  running  of  the  trains. 

The  testing  apparatus  required  consists  of  a  4-ounce  vial, 
a  thermometer,  a  quart  can  and  a  freezing  mixture. 

The  four-ounce  vial  is  one-fourth  filled  with  the  oil  to  be 
examined,  a  short  and  rather  heavy  thermometer  inserted  In 
It,  and  the  whole  placed  in  a  freezing  mixture.  When  the  oil 
has  become  solid  throughout,  the  vial  is  removed,  the  oil 
allowed  to  soften,  and  thoroughly  stirred  until  it  will  run 
from  one  end  of  the  bottle  to  the  other.  The  reading  of  the 
thermometer  is  now  taken  by  withdrawing  it  and  wiping  off 
the  oil  with  waste  to  render  the  mercury  visible. 

The  chilling-point  Is  the  temperature  at  which  flakes  or 
scales  begfn  to  form  in  the  liquid,  and  is  determined  similarly, 
by  cooling  the  liquid  five  degrees  at  a  time. 
The  freezing  mixtures  are: 

For  temperatures  above  35°  F.,  cracked  ice  and  water. 
Between  35°  and  0°  F.,  2  parts  of  Ice  and  1  part  of  salt. 
From  0°   to  30°  below  zero,  3   parts  of  crystallized  calcium 
chloride  and  two  parts  of  fine  ice  or  snow. 

A  still  more  convenient  means  is  the  use  of  solid  carbonic 
acid,  "carbonic  acid  snow,"  dissolved  in  ether  or  alcohol, 
which  readily  gives  50°  F.  below  zero. 

Flash-Point.  By  flash-point  is  understood  that  temperature 
at  which  an  oil  gives  off  vapors  in  suflBcient  quantity  to  ex- 
plode when  mixed  with  air.  This  point  is  reached  by  burning 
oils  in  testing  when  a  blue  flame  passes  entirely  over  the 
surface  of  the  oil.  Like  specific  gravity,  the  chief  use  of 
the  test  with  lubricating  oils  is  to  ascertain  if  any  change 

33 


has  been  made  in  the  oil  supplied.  With  burning  oils  it 
determines  the  safety  of  the  oil.  In  considering  the  results 
of  this  test,  differences  of  5  to  7°  F.  may  be  disregarded,  as 
duplicate  tests  upon  the  same  sample  may  vary  as  widely  as 
this. 

Several  forms  of  apparatus  for  testing  the  flash-point  of 
lubricating  oils  have  been  devised.     Pensky-Martens'  closed 


r\ 


^^ 


Fig.   8— CLEVELAND    CUP. 

tester  employing  a  stirrer  is  used  in  Germany.  Martens  states 
that  stirring  is  unnecessary.  Dudley  and  Pease  use  an  open 
porcelain  dish  heated  with  a  Bunsen  burner.  In  this  country 
the  "Cleveland  cup,"  Fig.  8,  is  extensively  used.  This  con- 
sists of  an  open  spun  brass  cup,  1%  inches  high  by  2^  inches 
in  diameter,  heated  by  a  Tirrell  burner  in  an  air  bath.  The 
thermometer  is  suspended  from  the  wire  support  directly 
over  the  center  of  the  cup  so  that  its  bulb  is  entirely  covered 
with  oil,  but  does  not  touch  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  The  test- 
ing flame  is  a  gas  jet  about  %  inch  in  length. 

The  oil  cup  is  filled  with  the  oil  to  be  tested  to  within  ^4 
Inch  of  the  top.  The  burner  is  adjusted  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  oil  5°  per  minute.  Every  thirty  seconds,  the  test- 
ing flame  is  brought  almost  in  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  oil.    A  distinct  blue  flame  or  "flash"  over  the  entire  sur- 

34 


face  of  the  oil  shows  that  the  flash  point  has  been  reached 
and  the  reading  of  the  thermometer  is  then  noted.  The  flash 
point  determined  by  the  "open  cup"  is  higher  sometimes  by  5° 
to  10°  than  that  obtained  by  the  "closed  cup." 

For  accurate  work  the  thermometers  used  should  either 
be  graduated  by  the  maker  to  correct  for  the  stem  exposure 
with  half-inch  immersion  in  the  bath  or  corrected  for  stem- 
exposure.    This  is  found  by  the  formula, 

exposure  =  (f  X  0.00016    (t-t^) ; 
In  which  d  =  length  of  exposed  thread  in  degrees. 

t  =  temperature  observed. 

t»  =  temperature  of  the  glass  of  the  thermometer  itself  as 
shown  by  a  separate  thermometer.  This  correction  is  addi- 
tive and,  if  200°  were  out  of  the  bath  and  t-t^  equal  to  120', 
would  amount  to  3.7°.  The  thermometers  should  be  frequently 
compared  with  a  standard. 

The  free  acid  contained  in  an  oil  lowers  its  flash  point 
apparently  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  present. 

Fire  Test.  The  heating  and  application  of  the  testing 
flame  are  continued  as  in  making  the  flash  test.  The  tem- 
perature is  noted  at  which  the  oil  ignites  and  burns.  The 
flame  is  put  out  by  the  extinguisher  supplied  with  the 
apparatus. 

Gumming  Test,  This  test  indicates  the  change  that  may 
be  expected  in  a  mineral  oil  when  in  use.  The  resinifled 
products  increase  the  friction  of  the  revolving  or  rubbing 
surfaces.  The  test  is  applied  by  thoroughly  mixing  and  beat- 
ing together  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  oil  in  a  cordial  glass 
or  small  wade-mouthed  bottle  with  170  grains  of  nitrosul- 
phuric  acid,  and  cooling  by  setting  the  glass  in  a  basin  of 
water  at  50°  to  60°  F.  Brownish  spots,  or,  in  case  of  a  bad 
oil,  masses  form  around  the  edges  and  gradually  cover  the 
whole  surface  in  the  course  of  two  hours.  As  shown  by  long 
experience,  the  oil  showing  the  least  tar  is  the  best  oil  and 
also  absorbs  the  least  oxygen. 

Nitrosulphuric  acid  is  troublesome  to  prepare,  but  direc- 
tions therefor  will  be  found  in  the  writer's  "Handbook  of  Oil 
Analysis,"  and  it  may  be  replaced  by  nitric  acid  and  copper. 
Use  ordinary  nitric  acid,  1.34  sp.  gr.,  drop  into  this  two  pieces 
of  No.  15  B.  &  S.  gage  copper  wire  %  inch  long,  and  in  an 
hour  two  more  pieces,  wetting  the  wire  in  water  before  drop- 
ping it  into  the  acid. 

35 


Test  for  Acidity.  In  a  petroleum  oil  the  acid  present  Is 
usually  sulphuric,  owing  to  the  acid  used  in  refining  not  being 
completely  washed  out  of  the  oil.  Its  presence  can  be  de- 
tected by  shaking  about  one-fourth  of  a  test-tubeful  of  oil 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  warm  distilled  water  in  a  test  tube. 
The  oil  is  poured  off  carefully  and  the  water  tested  with 
neutral  litmus  paper,  which  in  presence  of  acid  is  changed  to 
red.  If  the  litmus  paper  used  were  too  blue,  the  acid  might 
be  all  used  up  before  the  color  changes;  hence  in  this  case 
it  should  be  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  hydrochloric  acid  until 
nearly  neutral.  A  test  should  be  made  to  be  sure  that  the 
water  is  not  acid.  Not  more  than  a  faint  reddening  is  allow- 
able. The  acid  content  should  not  exceed  0.3  per  cent.,  cal- 
culated as  sulphuric  anhydride  (SO3). 

Test  for  animal  and  vegetable  oils  in  mineral  oils.  Put 
about  an  inch  of  the  oil  into  each  of  two  test  tubes.  To  one 
of  these  add  two  pieces  of  metallic  sodium  as  large  as  half  a 
pea,  and  to  the  other  a  similar  quantity  of  sodium  hydrate 
(caustic  soda).  Extreme  care  should  be  taken  in  handling 
these  substances  as  the  metallic  sodium  takes  fire  if  wet, 
forming  caustic  soda  which  vigorously  attacks  the  skin  and 
clothing.  If  any  gets  upon  either  the  skin  or  clothing,  wash 
it  off  with  water  and  dilute  muriatic  acid  and  then  remove 
the  acid  with  water. 

Heat  the  test  tubes  in  an  oil  bath  to  a  temperature  of  about 
445°  F.  in  case  the  oil  is  light  colored,  and  480°  F.  If  it  is 
dark  colored.  In  case  fatty  oil  is  present,  the  contents  of 
one  or  both  of  the  tubes  show  a  foam  as  of  soap  bubbles  on 
the  surface,  and  solidify  to  a  jelly  of  greater  or  less  con- 
sistency, according  to  the  amount  of  fatty  oil  present. 

The  oil  bath  is  in  an  iron  pot  containing  heavy  cylinder 
oil,  lard  or  cotton-seed  oil  deep  enough  to  cover  the  oil  sur- 
face in  the  test  tubes. 

Detection  of  "oil-thickener"  or  "oil-pulp."  This  is  usually 
an  oleate  of  aluminum,  a  soap,  which  is  dissolved  in  the  oil 
to  increase  its  viscosity  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  has 
little  effect  on  the  oil  at  the  temperature  at  which  it  Is 
used.  It  may  be  detected  by  diluting  the  oil  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  naphtha  and  adding  about  15  drops  of  a  saturated 
solution  of  stick  phosphoric  acid  in  absolute  (100  per  cent.) 
alcohol.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  and  the  formation 
of  a  flocculent  precipitate  indicates  the  presence  of  soap. 

36 


As  showing  the  extent  to  which  it  affects  the  viscosity,  a 
sample  of  oil  containing  it  would  not  flow  from  the  viscosi- 
meter  at  70°  F.,  required  1167  seconds  at  85°  and  181  seconds 
at  110°. 

Evaporation  Test.  This  is  often  applied  to  light  oils,  like 
spindle  and  loom  oils.  It  measures  the  loss  sustained  by  an 
oil  when  exposed  on  a  bearing.  It  requires  a  delicate  analyti- 
cal balance,  sensitive  to  a  thousandth  of  a  grain,  to  detect 
the  loss,  as  the  amount  of  oil  used  is  small  (200  milligrams 
or  3.1  grains).  The  amount  of  loss  should  not  exceed  4  per 
cent.  The  test  is  important  to  the  mill  owner,  as  it  repre- 
sents the  amount  of  oil  that  stays  on  the  bearing  and  serves 
Its  purpose.  It  is  of  even  greater  importance  to  the  In- 
surance underwriter,  as  it  measures  the  amount  of  volatile 
inflammable  matter  passing  into  the  atmosphere  and  liable 
to  cause  a  fire.  This  actually  happened  in  a  spinning  mill  in 
Maine.  The  oil  contained,  however,  25  per  cent,  of  volatile 
matter;  that  is,  the  evaporation  test  was  25  per  cent.  As  a 
result  of  an  investigation  undertaken  by  the  insurance  com- 
panies, all  oils  of  this  type  were  driven  out  of  use  within  a 
year. 

In  making  this  test  the  oil  is  exposed  upon  annular  disks  of 
filter-paper  1%  inches  outside  diameter,  with  the  hole 
%  inch  in  diameter,  which  have  been  drying  for  several  days 
in  a  sulphuric  acid  desiccator  contained  in  a  flat  watch-glass. 
The  watch-glass  and  paper  are  weighed  to  tenths  of  a  milli- 
gram, and  about  0.2  gram  of  oil  brought  upon  it  by  dropping 
from  a  rod,  and  accurately  weighed.  The  watch-glass  is  now 
placed  in  an  air-bath,  the  temperature  of  which  remains 
nearly  constant  at  140°  to  150°  F.  and  heated  for  eight  hours. 
It  is  then  cooled  and  reweighed,  the  loss  being  figured  in  per 
cent.  No  oil  should  be  passed  which  gives  an  evaporation 
of  more  than  4  per  cent. 

Friction  Test.  By  this  is  meant  the  determination  of  the 
amount  of  power  required  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  an 
oil  when  applied  to  a  bearing.  The  oil  is  tested  under  ideal 
conditions  with  a  shaft  and  boxes  as  nearly  perfect  as  me- 
chanical skill  can  make  them,  with  the  feed  of  oil,  the  tem- 
perature and  pressure  on  the  bearing  even,  regular  and 
under  complete  control. 

The  small  Thurston  machine.  Figs.  9  and  10,  will  give  an 
idea   of  the  principle   and   construction.     It  consists   of  the 

37 


testing-shaft  or  journal  F,  I14  in.  long  by  1^4,  in.  in  diam- 
eter, and  the  bronze  bearings  GG\  the  pressure  of  which  on 
the  shaft  can  be  regulated  by  the  coil  spring.  The  amount 
of  pressure  is  shown  by  the  index  M.  A  thermometer  in  Q 
indicates   the   temperature   of   the   bearing.     The   journal   la 


1  igs.  0  and  10— TIIURSTOX  MACHINE. 

rotated  by  means  of  the  step-pulley  C  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow;  this  causes  a  displacement  of  the  pendulum  GK, 
containing  the  spring  J  along  the  arc  PP'. 

The  amount  of  displacement  along  this  arc  measures  the 
friction  of  the  oil,  being  large  with  great  friction  and  small 
with  good  lubricants.  The  arc  is  so  graduated  that,  divid- 
ing the  reading  by  the  pressure  shown  by  the  index  M,  the 
coefficient  of  friction  is  given.  This  machine  is  designed 
for  testing  the  lighter  oils.  A  larger  size  of  this  machine 
is  made  with  a  journal  3%  in.  in  diameter  and  7  in.  long 
for  heavy  lubricants  and  railroad  work. 

The  writer  is  inclined  to  question  the  value  of  the  fric- 
tion test  for  practical  purposes.  He  believes  that  equally 
good  or  better  results  can  be  obtained  by  comparing  the 
flash,  fire,  gravity,  and  viscosity  tests  of  the  oil  in  question 
with  like  tests  of  an  oil  that  has  given  satisfactory  results 

3S 


in  practice.  This  is  true  only  of  oils  coming  from  the  same 
field  or  part  of  the  country.  Texas,  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
oils,  or  oils  having  an  asphaltic  base,  cannot  be  compared 
with  those  having  a  paraffin  base,  nor  those  carrying  sul- 
phur with  those  not  carrying  sulphur. 


Fig.  11— NEW  YORK  STATE  TESTER. 

Testing  of  Burning  Oils. 

The  chief  tests  to  be  applied  to  this  class  of  oils  are  the 
flash,  fire,  specific  gravity  and  sulphuric  acid  test. 

In  making  the  Flash  Test,  three  different  types  of  testers 
are  used:  (1)  the  open  tester,  in  which  the  cup  containing 
the  oil  is  not  covered  or  closed,  but  is  freely  open  to  the 
air;  (2)  the  covered  or  New  York  State  tester,  in  which  the 
cup  is  covered  with  a  glass  cover  containing  two  holes;  and 
(3)  the  closed  tester  in  which  the  oil  is  heated  in  a  tightly 
closed  cup  which  is  opened  momentarily  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  testing  flame. 

The  New  York  State  tester  consists    of    a    coi)per  oil  cup, 

39 


Fig.  11,  holding  about  10  ounces,  the  quantity  usually  con- 
tained in  a  lamp,  and  heated  in  a  water-bath  by  a  small  Bun- 
sen  flame.  The  cup  is  provided  with  a  glass  cover,  carrying 
a  thermometer  and  there  is  an  opening  for  the  insertion  of 
a  small  gas  flame  V4,  inch  in  length. 

The  regulations  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health 
stipulate  that  the  test  shall  be  applied  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing directions: 

Remove  the  oil-cup  and  fill  the  water-bath  with  cold  water 
up  to  the  mark  inside.  Replace  the  oil-cup  and  pour  in 
enough  oil  to  fill  it  to  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
flange,  joining  the  cup  and  the  vapor-chamber  above.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  oil  does  not  flow  over  the  flange.  Re- 
move all  air-bubbles  with  a  piece  of  dry  paper.  Place  the 
glass  cover  on  the  oil-cup  and  so  adjust  the  thermometer  that 
its  bulb  shall  be  just  covered  by  the  oil. 

If  an  alcohol  lamp  is  employed  for  heating  the  water-bath, 
the  wick  should  be  carefully  trimmed  and  adjusted  to  a  small 
flame.  A  small  Bunsen  burner  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
lamp.  The  rate  of  heating  should  be  about  two  degrees  per 
minute,  and  in  no  case  exceed  three  degrees. 

As  a  flash-torch,  a  small  gas  jet  one-quarter  of  an  inch  In 
length  should  be  employed.  When  gas  is  not  at  hand  employ 
a  piece  of  waxed  linen  twine.  The  flame  in  this  case,  how- 
ever, should  be  small. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  oil  has  reached  85  degrees  F., 
the  tests  should  commence.  Insert  the  torch  in  the  opening 
at  such  an  angle  as  to  clear  the  cover  and  to  a  distance  about 
half-way  between  the  oil  and  the  cover.  The  motion  should 
be  steady  and  uniform,  rapid  and  without  any  pause.  This 
should  be  repeated  at  every  two  degrees'  rise  of  the  ther- 
mometer until  the  thermometer  has  reached  95  degrees,  when 
the  lamp  should  be  removed  and  the  testings  should  be  made 
for  each  degree  of  temperature  until  100  degrees  is  reached. 
After  this  the  lamp  may  be  replaced  if  necessary  and  the  test- 
ings continued  for  each  two  degrees. 

The  appearance  of  a  slight  bluish  flame  passing  entirely 
over  the  surface  of  the  oil  shows  that  the  flashing-point  has 
been  reached. 

In  every  case  note  the  temperature  of  the  oil  before  intro- 
ducing the  torch.  The  flame  of  the  torch  must  not  come  In 
contact  with  the  oil. 

The  water-bath  should  be  filled  with  cold  water  for  each 
separate  test,  and  the  oil  from  a  previous  test  carefully  wiped 
from  the  oil-cup. 


40 


In  making  the  flash  test  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
liberating  the  vapor  quickly  from  the  oil  lowers  the  flash- 
point. This  may  be  caused  by:  (1)  rapid  heating;  (2)  a 
large  and  shallow  cup  from  which  the  evaporation  takes 
place  quickly;  (3)  a  large  quantity  of  oil  used  for  the  test; 
and  (4)  a  large  testing  flame  or  one  too  frequently  or  closely 
applied. 

The  results  obtained  with  this  apparatus  are  about  5°  to 
8°  lower  than  those  obtained  with  open  cups.  This  cup 
reproduces  more  closely  than  any  other  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing when  burning  the  oil  in  lamps.  The  tester,  like  a 
lamp,  is  not  freely  open  to  the  air,  preventing  the  escape 
of  volatile  vapors.  This  escape  takes  place  with  open  cups 
and  consequently  the  results  obtained  with  them  are  higher. 

The  Fire  Test  is  made  by  raising  the  cover  above  the  cup 
and  continuing  to  heat  the  oil  until  it  gives  off  vapors  which 
burn  continuously  when  ignited.  It  is  usually  15°  to  25° 
higher  than  the  flash-point. 

In  choosing  a  burning  oil,  one  of  a  high  flash-point  rather 
than  one  of  a  high  flre-point  should  be  selected,  as  the 
flash  not  the  fire-point  determines  the  safety  of  the  oil. 
Oils  having  a  high  flash  test  are  sure  to  have  a  high  flre 
test;  but  those  of  a  high  fire  test  may  or  may  not  have  a 
high  flash  test.  That  is,  in  making  the  first  test,  no  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  flash  test,  and  the  dangerous  volatile  con- 
stituents of  the  oil  (naphtha)  escape  detection,  being  driven 
off.  This  was  well  illustrated  in  a  sample  of  fuel  oil  sent 
to  the  writer  for  test.  The  flash-point  was  60°  F.  and  the 
fire-point  143°.  Had  the  flre-point  alone  been  considered  it 
would  have  been  regarded  as  a  safe  oil,  whereas  the  flash- 
point, 60°  P.,  showed  it  to  be  dangerous.  Too  much  stress, 
therefore,  cannot  be  laid  on  the  flash  test,  which  should  be 
at  least  dlO°  F.  (or  better,  120°),  remembering  that  a  safe 
oil  makes  safe  lamps.  Professor  Engler  states  that  no  lamp 
should  be  used  which  heats  the  oil  more  than  10°  F.  above 
the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

The  Specific  Gravity  of  burning  oils  is  determined  exactly 
as  in  the  case  of  lubricating  oils. 


41 


The  Sulphuric  Acid  Test  shows  the  degree  to  which  an 
oil  is  refined;  that  is,  the  extent  to  which  the  tarry  and  ill- 
smelling  products  in  the  oil  formed  during  the  process 
of  distillation  have  been  removed.  It  is  made  by  shaking 
100  parts,  by  weight,  of  the  oil  with  40  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  of  1.73  sp.  gr.  for  two  minutes,  and  noting  the  color  of 
the  acid  layers.  A  suitably  refined  oil  should  give  little  or  no 
color. 

Tests  for  Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils. 

When  examining  an  unknown  oil  the  analyst  should  as- 
certain all  possible  facts  about  it:  its  cost,  its  source,  and 
the  use  for  which  it  is  intended.  There  is  unfortunately  no 
such  number  of  specific  tests  for  the  various  oils  as  there 
are  for  the  various  metals.  While  it  is  easy  to  say  posi- 
tively that  a  certain  metal  is  present  or  absent,  the  same 
cannot  be  said  of  many  of  the  oils.  We  can  be  practically 
sure  of  the  presence  of  cotton-seed,  sesame,  rosin  and  min- 
eral oils,  and  reasonably  certain  of  peanut,  rape,  castor,  and 
sperm,  but  can  have  only  suspicions  as  to  the  presence  or 
absence  of  most  of  the  others. 

The  fact  that  crops  vary  in  quality  from  year  to  year,  can- 
not but  have  its  influence  upon  the  qnality  of  vegetable  oils 
produced.  "WTiereas,  in  the  case  of  an  inorganic  compound, 
like  soda  ash,  we  can  require  that  it  must  contain  58  per 
cent,  of  oxide  of  sodium,  with  less  than  1  per  cent,  varia- 
tion either  way.  we  cannot  prescribe  such  definite  specifica- 
tions for  oils,  for  the  reason  just  stated,  namely,  the  varia- 
tion in  genuine  oils,  on  account  of  the  change  due  to  the 
seasons,  wet  or  dry,  cold  or  hot,  or  the  variety  of  the  plant 
or  tree — there  are  300  varieties  of  olive  trees  in  Italy  alone. 

These  influences  change  the  characteristics,  like  the  spe- 
cific gravity,  Maumene  figure,  etc.,  which  are  our  guides  for 
determining  the  adulteration  of  an  oil.  For  example,  the 
Maumen^  figure  for  olive  oil  varies  from  35°  to  47°  C; 
consequently,  if  we  find  a  figure  of  44°  there  are  three  possi- 
bilities: (1)  that  the  oil  is  genuine;  (2)  that  it  is  an  oil  orig- 
inally of  a  figure  of  47°,  which  has  been  adulterated  with  an 
oil  of  lower  Maumen^  figure;  or  (3)  that  the  original  figure 


42 


was  11°  and  it  has  been  adulterated  with  an  oil  of  higher 
Maumene  figure.  As  to  which  of  these  is  correct,  we  must 
be  guided  by  other  "constants"  and  special  tests.  There  la 
a  variation  of  12/44  or  27  per  cent,  in  these  characteristic 
"constants";  consequently,  the  determination  of  the  per- 
centage of  one  oil  in  another  may  not  be  accurate  within 
about  14  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  sensitiveness  of  chemical  methods  permits  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  processes  for  the  determination  of  these 
"constants"  within  at  least  1  per  cent,  or  even  less. 

Considering  the  items  of  cost,  source  and  use,  the  cost, 
compared  with  current  prices,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  kind 
of  oil  if  it  is  uncompounded.  It  is  not  usual  to  find  an  ex- 
pensive oil  mixed  with  one  of  lower  price,  unless  in  cer- 
tain lubricants  (cylinder  oils).  The  source  or  kind  of  an 
oil  will  give  an  idea  of  the  possible  adulterants,  and  also 
of  the  tests  and  constants  to  which  it  should  respond.  If 
the  source  or  kind  of  oil  is  not  known,  the  use  to  which  the 
oil  is  to  be  put  is  of  material  help  in  determining  its  com- 
position. For  example,  the  paint  oils  are  linseed,  men- 
haden ("pogy"),  and,  in  some  cases,  corn.  The  currying 
oils  are  neatsfoot  and  "cod."  The  burning  oils  are  lard, 
sperm,  and  rape.  The  textile  oils  are  olive,  oleine,  elaine, 
red,  lard,  neatsfoot  and  mineral.  The  cutting  oils  are  lard 
and  soluble  oils. 

Physical  Tests.  The  smell  of  an  oil  reveals  to  the  expert 
much  regarding  its  composition.  If  the  amateur  will  take 
the  trouble  to  make  a  collection  of  samples  of  genuine  oils 
for  comparison,  he  will  find  them  very  valuable  in  this  con- 
nection. The  odor  is  best  taken  by  warming  the  oil  in  a 
small  beaker  or  by  rubbing  a  small  quantity  of  the  oil  between 
the  thumb  and  finger  and  smelling  them.  Marine  animal 
oils  are  readily  detected  by  their  strong,  fishy  odor,  while 
neatsfoot,  tallow,  lard,  olive,  rosin,  and  linseed  oils  have  each 
a  well-marked  and  easily  distinguishable  odor.  Many  of  the 
statements  just  made  apply  with  equal  force  to  the  taste  of 
oils,  rape  oil  having  a  harsh,  unpleasant  taste,  and  whale  oil 
a  nutty  flavor.        , 

The  color  of  an  oil  is  not  to  be  relied  upon  for  identiflca- 


43 


tion,  as  oils  may  be  colored  reddish  or  greenish  by  the  oleates 
of  iron  or  copper.  The  "bloom"  fluorescence  or  peculiar  bluish, 
or  greenish  streak  seen  on  the  sides  of  a  vial  containing  min- 
eral oil,  is  proof  positive  of  the  presence  of  a  hydrocarbon  or 
petroleum  oil.  This  can  be  further  shown  by  putting  a  few 
drops  of  the  oil  on  a  piece  of  hard  rubber  or  other  black  sur- 
face and  observing  the  bluish  color. 

Specific  Gravity.  This  is  determined  with  a  hydrometer  In 
the  same  way  as  with  mineral  oils.  If  the  instrument  is  grad- 
uated in  Baum6  degrees  only,  the  reading  should  be  con- 
verted into  specific  gravity  referred  to  water,  as  that  is  the 
way  in  which  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils  are  designated. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  note  the  temperature  of  the  oil,  which 
should  be  60°  F.,  as  in  the  case  of  petroleum,  and  for  every 
degree  Fahrenheit  above  60°  add  0.00035  to  the  observed  spe- 
cific gravity: 

Ex. — The  hydrometer  shows  a  reading  of  2^.75°  Be.  at 
70°  F.  Find  the  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  in  question  at 
60°  F.  Table  1  shows  that  23°  Be.  =  0.9150  and  24°  = 
0.9090,  a  difference  of  0.0060  for  1°  Be.;  0.75°  Be.  (the  excess 
ahove  23°  X  0.006  =  0.0045;  .9150  — .0045  =  .9105.  That  Is: 
23.75°  Be.  =  0.9105  sp.  gr.  For  every  degree  Fahrenheit 
above  60,  0.00035  is  to  be  added,  or  (.00035  X  10)  .0035  for  70". 
Then  .9105 -f- .0035  =  .9140,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  at 
60°  F. 

The  fact  that  the  hotter  an  oil  is  the  lighter  it  is,  should 
not  be  forgotten. 

Valenta  Test.  This  depends  upon  the  solubility  of  the  va- 
rious oils  in  glacial  acetic  acid.  Glacial  acetic  acid  is  so 
strong  that  it  freezes  at  62°  F.  and  hoils  at  244°  F.  Care 
should  be  used  not  to  let  it  come  in  contact  with  the  body, 
as  it  blisters  severely. 

A  test  tube  is  filled  with  the  oil  to  the  depth  of  about  one 
inch,  the  exact  height  being  marked  by  the  thumb.  An  equal 
quantity  of  glacial  acetic  acid  is  poured  in  until  the  acid 
reaches  the  point  indicated  by  the  thumb.  A  light  thermom- 
eter is  placed  in  the  tube,  which  is  heated  until  the  oil  dis- 
solves, which  Is  shown  by  the  liquid  becoming  homogeneous. 
The  tube  Is  now  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  point  noted  at 
which  the  oil  begins  to  become  thoroughly  turbid.  It  is 
slightly  warmed  again  until  clear  and  the  cooling  is  repeated. 
The  readings  should  coincide  within  half  a  degree.     Castor 


44 


oil  is  soluble  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  while  rape  seed  is 
usually  insoluble  at  the  boiling-point  of  the  acid.  The  tem- 
peratures at  which  some  oils  become  turbid  are  shown  In 
Table  3. 

Eiaidin  Test.  This  test  depends  on  the  fact  that  certain 
oils,  rich  in  olein,  like  lard  and  neatsfoot,  are  changed  by 
nitrous  acid  into  a  solid  body,  having  the  same  composition, 
eiaidin.  It  serves  to  distinguish  between  the  non-drying, 
semi-drying,  and  drying  oils.  When  submitted  to  this  test, 
the  non-drying  oils  usually  form  a  solid  cake,  so  solid  that 
the  vessel  and  contents  can  be  lifted  by  the  rod  congealed 
in  the  cake  of  eiaidin.  The  semi-drying  oils  form  a  more  or 
less  pasty  mass,  while  the  drying  oils  form  a  liquid  mass 
with  clots  floating  in  it. 

The  test  is  performed  as  follows:  77  grains  of  the  oil  is 
weighed  out  into  a  cordial  glass  (a  small  goblet  about  three 
inches  high)  on  the  horn  pan  scales,  and  108  grains  nitric 
acid  of  1.34  sp.  gr.  weighed  into  it.  The  glass  is  immersed 
in  a  pan  of  iced  water,  at  50°  to  60°  F.  to  within  half  an  inch 
of  the  top.  After  about  ten  minutes  two  pieces  of  copper 
wire.  No.  15,  B.  &  S.  gage,  %-inch  long,  are  wet  in  water  and 
dropped  in,  and  the  oil  and  acid  stirred  together  with  a  short 
glass  rod,  with  an  up-and-down  as  well  as  a  rotary  move- 
ment, so  as  to  mix  the  oil,  acid,  and  evolved  gas  thoroughly. 
When  the  wire  has  dissolved,  add  two  more  pieces  and  allow 
to  stand  two  hours.  This  should  furnish  gas  enough,  if  the 
liquid  has  been  kept  cool  and  the  stirring  has  been  thorough. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  hour  pure  lard  will  usually  show  flakes 
of  a  wax-like  appearance,  and  upon  standing  without  dis- 
turbance for  another  hour  at  the  same  temperature,  the  oil 
will  have  changed  to  a  hard,  solid,  white  cake.  Most  of  the 
fish  and  seed  oils  yield  a  pasty  or  buttery  mass,  separating 
from  a  fluid  portion,  whereas  olive,  lard,  sperm,  and  some- 
times neatsfoot  oil,  yield  a  solid  cake. 

To  make  sure  of  the  manipulation,  a  test  should  be  made 
at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  way  with  an  oil  of  un- 
doubted purity,  lard  oil  for  example.  If  a  hard  cake  is  ob- 
tained with  the  pure  oil  and  a  buttery  mass  with  the  oil  un- 
der examination,  it  is  very  good  evidence  that  the  latter  is 
either  a  seed  oil  or  an  olive,  lard  or  sperm  oil,  adulterated 
with  a  seed  or  mineral  oil. 

45 


The  Maumene  Test,  or  heating  test  with  sulphric  acid, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  tests  to  determine  the  variety 
or  kind  of  an  oil;  it  has  the  advantage  of  requiring  no  com- 
plicated apparatus  and  is  simple  in  execution.  The  under- 
lying principle  is  that  when  oils  are  mixed  with  strong  sul- 
phuric acid,  heat  is  produced  and  the  quantity  of  heat  so 
produced  is  characteristic  of  the  various  oils. 

The  apparatus  required  consists  of  a  rather  tall  and  narrow 
beaker,  holding  about  5  ounces  (150  cc),  which  is  packed  in  a 
tin  can,  agate-ware  cup  or  larger  beaker,  with  dry  cotton 
waste  or  hair  felt,  the  packing  being  perhaps  an  inch  thick. 
A  light  thermometer  graduated  from  0°  to  150°  or  200°  C,  a 
tall  10-cc.  graduate  and  pair  of  horn  pan  scales  complete  the 
outfit. 

The  test  is  conducted  as  follows:  The  beaker  is  taken  out 
from  its  packing — disturbing  it  as  little  as  possible,  weighed 
on  the  scales  and  50  grams  of  oil  weighed  into  it,  to  within 
two  drops,  the  beaker  replaced  in  its  jacket,  the  thermometer 
inserted  in  the  oil,  and  its  temperature  noted.  Ten  cubic 
centimeters  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  gradually  run  into  the 
oil,  which  is  stirred  at  the  same  time  with  the  thermometer, 
and  the  graduate  allowed  to  drain  about  five  seconds — that 
is,  while  one  counts  ten.  The  stirring  is  continued  until  no 
further  increase  in  temperature  is  noted.  The  highest  point 
at  which  the  thermometer  remains  constant  for  any  appreci- 
able time  is  observed,  and  the  difference  between  this  and  the 
original  temperature  of  the  oil  is  the  rise  of  temperature. 

The  mixture  of  oil  and  acid  is  thrown  on  the  ash  heap,  and 
thermometer  and  beaker  are  carefully  wiped  free  of  oil  with 
cotton  waste,  the  jacket  is  allowed  to  cool  to  the  original 
temperature,  and  the  apparatus  is  again  ready  for  use.  A 
duplicate  test  should  always  be  made  and  the  results  should 
agree  within  2  or  3  per  cent.;  that  is,  with  a  rise  of  40°  C, 
the  results  of  the  two  experiments  should  differ  by  only  one 
degree.  Since  the  rise  of  temperature  varies  with  the 
strength  of  the  acid  the  experiment  should  be  repeated  to 
secure  uniformity,  using  water  instead  of  oil,  and  the  rise  of 
temperature  here  obtained,  used  to  divide  the  rise  of  tem- 
perature with  the  oil,  and  the  result  multiplied  by  one  hun- 
dred.   This  is  called  the  "specific  temperature  reaction."    The 


46 


acid  used  should  be  the  strongest  obtainable  and  should  show 
a  specific  gravity  of  1.84.  Priming  sulphuric  acid  should  not 
be  used. 

In  case  the  test  is  to  be  applied  to  a  drying  or  semi-drying 
oil,  it  should  be  diluted  with  an  equal  weight  of  petroleum 
oil  and  then  thoroughly  mixed.  The  rise  of  temperature  is 
in  this  case  the  rise  of  temperature  of  the  mixture,  minus  half 
the  rise  of  temperature  of  fifty  grams  of  mineral  oil,  multi- 
plied by  two. 

For  concordant  results  the  conditions  should  be  the  same, 
and  the  same  apparatus  should  be  used.  The  percentage  of 
one  oil  in  a  mixture  of  two  oils  can  be  found  by  the  following 
formula : 

Let  x  =  percentage  of  the  one  oil,  and  y  of  the  other; 
further,  m  =  Maumen6  value  of  pure  oil  x,  and  n  of  pure  oil  y, 
and  1  of  oil  under  examination,  then 

x=  [100  (1— n)]  H-  {m-^n) 

Suppose  we  have  an  olive  oil  adulterated  with  cottonseed. 
The  sample  in  question  has  a  Maumen^  figure  of  60.  We  see 
from  Table  3  that  cottonseed  oil  has  a  Maumen§  figure  of  76 
and  olive  oil  one  of  35.  Then,  substituting  in  the  formula, 
j;=(60— 35) -f- (76-35)  =  61%.  That  is,  there  is  about  60 
per  cent,  of  cottonseed  oil  in  the  olive  oil.  As  with  other 
oils,  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  test  with  an  oil  of  known 
purity. 

Halphen's  Test  for  Cottonseed  Oil.  This  test  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  the  oil  contains  a  fatty  acid,  which  combines 
with  sulphur,  giving  a  colored  compound.  The  apparatus 
needed  is  a  large  test  tube  seven  or  eight  inches  long  by  one 
inch  in  diameter,  fitted  with  a  tube  %  inch  in  diameter  and 
about  five  or  six  feet  long  to  serve  as  a  condenser  for  the 
alcohol  which  is  used  in  the  test.  To  join  or  fit  the  long 
tube  to  the  test  tube,  soften  a  good  cork  that  fits  the  test 
tube,  by  rolling  it  under  a  board  on  the  bench.  With  a  6- 
inch  or  7-inch  round-file,  bore  a  hole  through  the  cork  from 
the  small  end,  file  this  with  larger  round-files  until  the  long 
tube  fits  snugly  into  the  cork.  Before  trying  the  tube  in  the 
cork,  round  the  sharp  edges  with  a  file,  otherwise  they  will 
cut  the  cork  and  make  a  poor  fit.  If  the  tube  Is  wet,  It  will 
slip  or  twist  into  the  cork  much  better.     Besides  this,  an 


47 


agate-ware  cup  holding  brine,  and  means  of  heating  it  and 
a  water-bath  are  required.  The  chemicals  or  reagents  needed 
are  amyl  alcohol  (fusel  oil)  and  a  l^/^  per  cent,  solution  of 
sulphur  in  carbon  bisulphide.  This  should  not  be  opened 
near  a  fire  or  flame,  as  it  is  very  inflammable. 

To  make  the  test,  about  two  or  three  teaspoonfuls  (10-15cc.) 
of  the  melted  fat  or  oil  (the  exact  quantity  makes  no  dif- 
ference) are  heated  with  an  equal  volume  of  the  amyl  alcohol 
and  of  the  carbon  bisulphide  solution  of  sulphur,  with  occa- 
sional shaking,  in  the  water-bath  and,  after  the  violent  boil- 
ing has  ceased,  in  the  brine  bath  at  about  220°-230''  F.  for 
forty-five  minutes  to  three  hours,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
cottonseed  oil  present,  the  tube  being  occasionally  removed 
and  shaken.  As  little  as  1  per  cent,  will  give  a  crimson- 
wine  coloration  in  twenty  minutes.  If  the  mixture  is  heated 
too  long,  a  misleading  brownish  red  color  due  to  burning  is 
produced. 

Test  for  Unsaponifiable  Oils  in  Animal  or  Vegetable  Fats 
and  Oils.  This  test  depends  upon  the  fact  that  when  a  soap 
solution  containing  unsaponified  oil  is  diluted  with  water,  it  is 
precipitated,  causing  an  opalescence  or  turbidity.  Six  or  eight 
drops  of  oil  are  boiled  two  minutes  in  a  test-tube  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  3  per  cent,  alcoholic-potash  solution.  This  is 
made  by  dissolving  caustic  potash  (take  care!)  in  ordinary 
alcohol  or  wood  spirits.  The  potash  makes  soap  of  the  oil 
and  to  this  soap  solution  distilled  w^ater  is  gradually  added 
(1^  to  15  cc),  and  one  notices  whether  the  solution  remains 
clear  or  whether  a  turbidity  appears  which  clears  on  the  addi- 
tion of  more  water.  Eh-en  1  per  cent,  of  mineral  oil  may  be 
detected  in  this  way. 

There  are  two  other  tests  which  are  applied  to  these  oils 
which  require  considerable  experience  and  a  number  of  re- 
agents that  can  be  prepared  only  by  a  skilled  chemist.  As 
these  are  sometimes  referred  to  in  oil  analysis  they  will  be 
defined  here.  These  tests  are  the  Saponification  Number  and 
Iodine  Value.  By  the  saponification  number  or  value  is  meant 
the  number  of  parts  by  weight  of  potassium  hydrate  (KOH), 
caustic  potash,  necessary  to  saponify  1000  parts  of  the  oil. 
This  is  nearly  the  same  for  many  oils,  averaging  193.  Rape 
has  a  number  of  178;  and  sperm,  124-145.  The  number  is 
mainly  of  value  in  detecting  the  adulteration  of  animal  or 


48 


vegetable  oils  with  petroleum  or  rosin  oils  which  are  not 
saponifiable. 

By  the  iodine  number  or  value  is  understood  the  number 
of  parts  by  weight  of  iodine  absorbed  by  1000  parts  of  oil; 
this  varies  from  176  with  linseed,  to  8  with  cocoanut  oil.  This 
can  be  used  the  same  as  the  MaumenS  figure  for  calculating 
the  adulteration  in  an  oil. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  Test. 
The  liability  to  gum  on  exposure  to  the  air  can  best  be 
determined  with  the  apparatus  which  enables  a  current  ol 


C^ 


hhn 


Fir.  13— MACKEY'S  APPARATUS. 

air  to  be  drawn  over  the  oil,  which  is  exposed  in  a  thin 
layer  at  a  temperature  of  400°  F.  for  two  hours.  The  extent 
to  which  the  oil  gums  is  measured  by  noting  the  percentage 
increase  in  its  viscosity.  An  oil  showing  an  increase 
of  over  8  per  cent,  is  liable  to  give  trouble.  This 
method  has  been  tested  by  Richardson  and  Jaffe  and  also  by 
the  author  and  found  to  give  reliable  results. 

Finally  in  making  out  specifications,  certain  mechanical 
details  should  not  be  overlooked.  The  barrels  should  be 
clean  and  the  oil  should  be  free  from  specks,  dirt,  stearlne, 


49 


glue  or  anything  likely  to  clog  the  lubricators  that  may  be 
used;  the  oil  should  be  free  from  tar  (still  bottoms)  as 
shown  by  the  gasoline  test,  and  if  compounded  should  be 
composed  of  oils  that  mix  perfectly. 

Mackey's  apparatus,  Fig.  12,  consists  of  a  cylindrical  cop- 
per water-bath  7  In.  high  and  4  in.  inside  diameter,  sur- 
rounded with  a  half-inch  water-jacket.  The  cover  is  packed 
with  asbestos  and  carries  the  draft  tubes  A  and  B,  i/^  in.  In 
diameter  and  6  in.  long,  which  cause  a  current  of  air  to  be 
sucked  down  B  and  up  A,  thus  ensuring  a  circulation  of  air 
in  the  apparatus.  C  is  a  cylinder  made  of  24-mesh  wire 
gauze  6  in.  high  and  1^/^  in.  in  diameter,  supported  upon  a 
projection  from  the  bottom  of  the  bath.  A  thermometer  pro- 
jects into  the  center  of  the  cylinder.  If  a  metal  condenser 
is  connected  to  the  water-bath  the  latter  can  be  used  indefi- 
nitely without  refilling  and  without  danger  of  burning  out. 

One  hundred  and  eight  grains  of  ordinary  bleached  cotton 
wadding  are  weighed  out  in  a  porcelain  dish  or  on  a  watch- 
glass,  and  216  grains  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  poured  upon 
the  cotton  and  thoroughly  worked  into  It,  care  being  taken 
to  replace  any  oil  that  is  lost.  The  cotton  Is  then  placed  in 
the  cylinder,  packed  about  the  thermometer  so  that  It  occu- 
pies the  upper  4^/^  in.  of  the  cylinder,  and  put  into  the  boil- 
ing water-bath.  At  the  end  of  an  hour,  the  bath  having  been 
kept  in  active  ebullition,  the  temperature  is  read.  Any  oil 
which  shows  a  temperature  exceeding  100°  C.  in  one  hour  or 
200°  C.  in  two  hours  should  be  regarded  as  a  dangerous  oil 
liable  to  produce  spontaneous  combustion.  The  following 
tables  show  the  results  obtained  in  using  this  apparatus: 

Temperature  °C.  in 

Oil  1  hr. 

Olive   (neutral)    97-98 

Cotton-seed     112-128 

Elaine     98-103 

Olive  fatty  oils    102-114 

Other  values  obtained  were: 


1%   hrs. 
100 

177-242 
101-115 


1%  hrs. 
101 

194-282 
102-191 
196 


Temp.  Time  Iodine 

Oil                                       °C.  Minutes  No. 

Olive    234  130  85.4 

Lard    234  75  75.2 

Oleic    Acid    158  188  60.5 

Cotton-seed     234  70  108.9 

Linseed      234  65  168.1 

25°    ParaflSn    97  135  16.2 

50 


Free 
Acid  % 
5.3 
Trace 

Neutral 
Neutral 


Besides  being  used  for  testing  oils  this  apparatus  can  be 
applied  to  testing  other  materials,  oily  waste,  sawdust,  or 
any  mixture  suspected  of  causing  spontaneous  combustion. 

The  results  of  the  greatest  practical  value  obtained  in  the 
use  of  this  apparatus  have  been:  (a)  determining  the  cause 
of  fires;  (b)  second,  determining  the  degree  of  safety  of  the 
various  oils  used  in  manufacturing.  Mineral  oil,  as  is  well 
known,  is  not  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion;  and  a  cer- 
tain percentage  of  animal  or  vegetable  oil  may  be  added  to 
mineral  oil  without  materially  increasing  the  danger  under 
ordinary  circumstances.  This  percentage  varies  according 
to  the  oil.  With  neatsfoot  and  first  quality  lard  oil  some 
50  to  60  per  cent,  may  be  used.  With  cotton-seed  not  over 
25  per  cent,  is  allowable.  The  claims  so  often  made  for 
so-called  "safe"  oils,  said  to  have  been  changed  by  special 
and  secret  processes  of  refining  so  as  to  be  no  longer  dan- 
gerous, are  easily  exposed  by  this  test. 

General  Considerations 

According  to  the  results  of  the  viscosity  and  friction  tests, 
the  least  viscous  oil  is  to  be  given  the  preference.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  heat  of  the  journal  di- 
minishes the  viscosity.  For  example,  at  60°  F.,  if  the  vis- 
cosity of  sperm  oil  be  taken  as  100,  that  of  25°  paraffin  oil 
is  123;  at  100°  F.  the  latter  has  diminished  to  110,  and  at 
250°  F.  the  two  are  practically  equal.  On  account  of  this 
change  in  temperature,  as  well  as  the  irregularities  of  the 
journals,  of  the  feed  and  of  pressure,  a  too  thinly  fluid  oil 
must  not  be  chosen. 

The  following  considerations  will  aid  in  the  selection  of  a 
suitable  oil. 

1.  The  flashing  point  of  the  oil  should  be  above  300°  F. 

2.  The  oil  should  have  an  evaporation  test  of  less  than  5 
per  cent. 

3.  On  general  principles  the  most  fluid  oil  that  will  stay 
in  place  should  be  used. 

4.  The  best  oil  Is  that  which  possesses  the  greatest  adhe- 
sion and  least  cohesion.    This  condition  Is  fulfilled  first,  by 

61 


fine    mineral    oils,    except    at    high    temperatures;    second, 
sperm;  third,  neatsfoot;  fourth,  lard. 

5.  For  light  pressures  and  high  speeds,  mineral  oils  of 
specific  gravity  30.5°  Be.,  flash  point  360°  F.,  sperm,  olive, 
and  rape  (Thurston  adds  also  cotton-seed)  should  be  em- 
ployed. 

6.  For  ordinary  machinery,  mineral  oils  of  specific  grav- 
ity 25°  to  29°  B6.,  flash  point  400°  to  450°  F.,  lard,  whale, 
neat's-foot,  and  tallow,  also  heavy  vegetable  oils  should  be 
used. 

7.  For  cylinder  oils,  mineral  oils  of  specific  gravity  27° 
B6.,  flash  point  550°  F.,  alone  and  with  small  percentages  (1 
to  7)  of  animal  or  vegetable  oils  are  employed;  the  latter 
are  degras,  tallow,  linseed,  cotton-seed,  and  blown  rape. 

The  above  specifications  apply  to  oils  of  paraflBn  base;  the 
asphaltic  base  oils  are  about  7°  B6.  heavier,  flash  lower  and 
are  much  more  viscous  than  the  corresponding  paraffin  base 
oils;  they  also  lose  their  viscosity  more  rapidly  except  at 
high  temperatures,  when  the  reverse  holds  true.  Conse- 
quently when  these  oils  are  specified,  their  viscosity  should 
be  from  25  to  50,  or  in  some  cases,  even  75  per  cent,  greater. 

8.  For  watches  and  clocks,  clarified  sperm,  jaw,  and 
"melon"  oils  should  be  employed. 

9.  For  heavy  pressure  and  slow  speed,  lard,  tallow,  and 
other  greases,  either  by  themselves  or  mixed  with  graphite 
and  soapstone,  should  be  used. 

10.  For  very  heavy  pressure,  solid  lubricants,  as  graphite 
and  soapstone,  are  employed. 

11.  To  resist  cold,  as,  for  example,  for  lubricating  air- 
driven  rock-drills,  kerosene  has  been  used. 

12.  The  oil  should  contain  no  acid  to  corrode  the  shaft  or 
journal.  The  German  railroads  permit  no  more  than  0.1  to 
0.3  per  cent,  of  acids,  calculated  as  sulphuric  anhydride,  in 
their  oils. 

In  addition  to  the  conditions  outlined  in  considerations  1 
to  12,  the  way  and  manner  in  which  the  oil  is  applied,  or  the 
"feed,"  influences  the  choice.  The  various  feeds  may  be  di- 
vided into  forced,  gravity,  ring  or  wick,  splash,  flooded  hear- 

62 


Table  1.  Comparison  of  Specific  Gravity  with  Baume  Degrees. 
(Lighter  than  water.) 

Baum6                  Sp.  Gr.                           Baum6  Sp.  Gr. 

10                          1.000                                   29  0.881 

12                          0.986                                   30  0.875 

14                          0.972                                   35  0.848 

16                          0.959                                   40  0.823 

18                          0.946                                   45  0.800 

20  0.933                                   50  0.778 

21  0.927                                   55  0.757 

22  0.921                                   60  0.737 

23  0.915                                   65  0.718 

24  0.909                                   70  0.700 

25  0.903                                   75  0.683 

26  0.897                                   80  0.666 

27  0.892                                   85  0.651 

28  0.886                                  90  0.636 
The  specific  gravity  can  in  general  be  found  by  the  formula 

140-^  (30-f  B°).    B°  represents  the  reading  B^.  at  60°  F. 

Table  2.     Specific  Gravity,  Degrees  Baume,  Weight  per  Gallon 
and  per  Cubic  Foot  of  Certain  Oils. 
Sp.  Gr.  60°  F.    Degrees  B.    Lb.  per  Gal.    Lb.  per  Cu.  ft. 


seed 


Oils 

Castor 
Cotton 
Horse 
Lard 
Linseed 
Neat's-foot 
Olive 
Rape 
Sperm 
Tallow- 
Turpentine 
Whale 
Water 


Castor 

Colza 

Cottonseed 

Horse  

Lard  82.8 

Linseed  80.0 

Neatsfoot  83.7 

Olive  66 

Rape  86.5 

Sperm  73.5 

Tallow  75.0 

Turpentine  

»At  140  deg.  F. 


0.961  15.66  8.01 

.922  21.83  7.68 

.919  22.17  7.66 

.915  23.00  7.62 

.934  19.87  7.79 

.915  23.00  7.62 

.916  22.80  7.63 

.916  22.80  7.63 

.880  29.00  7.34 

.916  22.80  7.63 

.866  31.60  7.22 

.927  21.00  7.72 

1.000  10.00  8.33 

Table  3.    Tests  of  Certain  Oils. 
Viscosity 

Doolittle     Saybolt  Flash      Yalenta 

viscid  132>  345            20 

see  Rape  

82.5  .  210»  582 


215  530-600 

200'  525 

250  440 

68'  450 

350»  530 

102  430-480 

125'  560 

119-125     .... 
'  Calculated  from  Doolittle  reading 
53 


90-110 

54-80 

54-98 

57-79 

62-75 

85-111 

Insoluble 

Insoluble 

71-75 


60.06 
57.62 
57.44 
57.14 
58.37 
57.14 
57.25 
57.25 
55.00 
57.25 
54.12 
57.93 
62.50 


Maumene 
47 

"76 
52 
41 
111 
42 
35 
55 
46 
35 


ing  and  hand  feed,  or  combinations  of  these.  Of  these  the 
forced,  gravity,  and  ring  or  wick,  are  economical,  of  high  effi- 
ciency, collect  little  dirt,  and  in  the  case  of  the  first  two,  fur- 
nish strained  oil  and  use  a  light  or  medium-bodied  oil;  the 
same  holds  true  of  the  flooded  bearing,  except  as  regards  the 
efficiency  of  the  recovery  of  the  oil.  The  chief  disadvantage 
of  the  splash  feed  is  that  any  dirt  and  wear  from  the  bear- 
ings are  not  separated  from  the  oil.  Hand  feeding  is  most 
wasteful  and  inefficient,  depending  upon  the  efficiency  of  the 
individual.  Forced  feed  is  employed  with  high  speed  and 
bearing  pressures;  it  uses  a  somewhat  more  viscous  oil — 
particularly  with  automobiles,  than  the  other  types  of  feed. 
Wear  and  Tear  of  Oils.  The  question  is  often  asked 
whether  oils  "wear  out."  This  continues  the  Southwick  con- 
ception of  the  ball  bearing  and  implies  that  the  balls  or 
molecules  break  or  wear  out.  Carpenter  and  Sawdon 
showed  that  the  gravity  and  viscosity  of  the  oils  in  circulat- 
ing systems  increased,  but  the  actual  friction  test  was 
slightly  lower  at  low  pressures,  and  a  trifle  higher  at  high 
pressures.  With  automobile  lubrication,  the  dilution  of  the 
oil  by  the  gasoline  residues  causes  it  to  become  thinner; 
consequently  fresh  oil  should  be  added  to  a  circulating  sys- 
tem to  keep  this  viscosity  practically  constant. 


54 


^iiliiiiiiiiliiliiliiliiliiliiinliiliiliiliiliiiiiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiiiiliiliiiiiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiliiig 

FOR  I 

Wool  and  Reworked  Wool  I 

Unequalled  Scouring  Agents  and  Fibre  Lubricators       | 
Non-Gumming  Penetrating  = 


"SiRADFORIZ 


A  Iways  Uniform  and  Reliable 
Once    Used,  Always    Used 


Samples  gladly  sent  on  request 
Write  us  about  your  needs 


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LYNN,  MASS. 

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^M 


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You  will  recognize  the  importance  to  you  of  this 
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With  the  passing  of  old  styles  of  textJIe  machinery  in 
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The  Scientific 

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